0
Q
what is an element?
A
substance that cannot be broken down into smaller parts
1
Q
state & explain the Law of Conservation of Mass
A
- law: mass cannot be created nor destroyed
- means the total amount of matters stays the same before & after a change/reaction
- matter changes from 1 form to another but the total mass stays the same
2
Q
what is a compound?
A
substance made up of 2 or more elements CHEMICALLY combined
3
Q
what’s the difference between an element & a compound?
A
element is made up of all the same atoms whereas compounds are made up of 2 or more kinds of element (therefore not all the same atoms)
4
Q
what is a solution?
A
- homogeneous mixture
- substances (parts) in mixture are EVENLY spread out
- parts are combined forming a uniform mixture so each one is not seen
5
Q
what is a colloid?
A
- heterogeneous mixture
- parts STAY mixed together
- parts are not visible & DO NOT separate
- parts are mixed in clusters/clumps of molecules too small to see but large enough to scatter light (Tyndall Effect)
6
Q
what is an emulsion?
A
- heterogeneous mixture
- should be a suspension but emulsifier is added to keep parts combined
7
Q
what is an emulsifier?
A
what hold mixtures together in emulsions
8
Q
what is an example of an emulsion?
A
mayonnaise - combo of vinegar & oil, egg yolk holds it together
9
Q
what is a suspension?
A
- heterogeneous mixture
- contains visible particles that settle or separate apart
- parts DO NOT stay mixed
10
Q
what are some examples of suspensions?
A
oil & vinegar
11
Q
what are some examples of colloids?
A
- smoke
- marshmallows
12
Q
what is a heterogeneous mixture?
A
- substances (parts) in mixture are UNEVENLY spread out
- parts can be SEEN in mixtures (most times)
13
Q
what is a substance?
A
matter that has all the same composition throughout the material
14
Q
what is a mixture?
A
- matter where the composition (parts) can VARY in the material
- PHYSICAL combo of 2 or more substances
- can be easily separated by physical processes
15
Q
what is the difference between substances & mixtures?
A
the composition - substances are the same whereas mixtures vary
16
Q
what are substances subdivided into?
A
- elements
- compounds
17
Q
what are mixtures subdivided into?
A
- homogeneous mixtures
- heterogeneous mixtures
18
Q
what are heterogeneous mixtures subdivided into?
A
- suspensions
- colloids
- emulsions
19
Q
what are some examples of elements?
A
- Iron (Fe)
- Copper (Cu)
20
Q
what are some examples of compounds?
A
- water (H₂O)
- table salt (NaCl)
21
Q
what are some examples of homogeneous mixtures?
A
- air
- kool-aid
- ice tea
22
Q
what does miscible mean?
A
describes two or more liquids that are able to dissolve into each other in various proportions
23
Q
what does immiscible mean?
A
describes two or more liquids that do not mix into each other
24
what is a chemical property?
the way a substance reacts with oters to form new substances with different properites
25
what is a physical property?
-a characteristic of a substance that can be observed or measured without changing the composition of the substance
26
what is the difference between chemical & physical properties?
chemical properties change the makeup of the substance while physical properties don't
27
what are some examples of chemical properties?
can it
- rust
- burn
- react with water, air, light, acid/base, metals, oxygen
28
what are some examples of physical properites?
- color
- texture
- odor
- shape
- density
- ductility (stretched into string-like shape)
- malleability (can be pounded into sheets)
- mass
- length
- volume
- specific heat
- melting/boiling point
- freezing point
- solubility
- conduction
- crystal shape
29
what is a chemical change?
- change that occurs when a substance changes composition by forming one or more new substances
- new substance is made w/ new properites
- aka chemical reaction
30
what is a physical change?
- change in physical form or properties of a substance that occurs without a change in composition
- change in size/shape/state of matter/solubility
- same chemical formula & symbols
31
what is the difference between chemical & physical changes?
chemical changes change the composition into something new while physical changes don't
32
what are some examples of chemical changes?
- rusting of iron
- digestion of food
- burning of leaves
- plants decay
- souring of milk
- developing of film
- battery working
33
what are some examples of physical changes?
- cutting
- bending
- breaking/tearing into pieces
- grinding up
- melting/freezing
- boiling
- evaporating
- condensing
- sublimating
- dissolving
34
briefly describe history of the atom
- atoms thought to be indivisible
- Democritus: believed matter made of tiny (to the point of invivisibility) particles in motion
- Isaac Newton & John Boyle: published separate articles on belief of atomic nature of elements (no proof yet)
- John Dalton's Atomic Theory
- Thomson's "Plum-Pudding" Model (discovered electron)
- Rutherford: discovered nucleus through gold foil experiment
- Henlry Mosely: discovered each element has diff. # of protons, began assigning elements atomic #s
- Niels Bohr: developed planetary model for structure of atom
- Erwin Shrödinger: developed modern theory of atomic orbitals
- Sir James Chadwick: discovered neutron
35
what is the electron cloud?
- region around nucleus that electrons move in
- "hazy sphere"
- probably location of electrons
- divided into energy levels
36
what are quarks?
- particles of matter that make up protons & neutrons
| - do not exist alone (always in groups called hadrons)
37
how are protons broken apart with linear accelerators (supercolliders)?
- large tube allows 2 streams of protons to be accelerated in opposite directions
- control high speed protons using magnetic forces
- streams of protons collide so particles & forces can recorded & studied with ?
38
hydrogen
H
39
helium
He
40
lithium
Li
41
beryllium
Be
42
boron
B
43
carbon
C
44
nitrogen
N
45
oxygen
O
46
fluorine
F
47
neon
Ne
48
sodium
Na
49
radium
Ra
50
magnesium
Mg
51
aluminum
Al
52
silicon
Si
53
phosphorus
P
54
sulfur
S
55
chlorine
Cl
56
argon
Ar
57
potassium
K
58
calcium
Ca
59
chromium
Cr
60
manganese
Mn
61
radon
Rn
62
iron
Fe
63
cobalt
Co
64
nickel
Ni
65
copper
Cu
66
zinc
Zn
67
arsenic
As
68
selenium
Se
69
bromine
Br
70
kyrpton
Kr
71
strontium
Sr
72
silver
Ag
73
tin
Sn
74
molybdenum
Mo
75
antimony
Sb
76
iodine
I
77
xenon
Xe
78
cesium
Cs
79
barium
Ba
80
tungsten
W
81
gold
Au
82
mercury
Hg
83
lead
Pb
84
bismuth
Bi
85
uranium
U
86
what is atomic number?
- # of protons in nucleus of atom
- each element has different atomic #
- listed on periodic table
87
what is mass #?
- total # of protons & neutrons
| - not listed on periodic table
88
how do you determine an element's atomic number?
listed above element on periodic table
89
how do you determine an element's mass #?
by rounding the average atomic mass value on P.T. to whole # (gives most common isotope mass #)
90
where do the mass # & atomic # go in the element shorthand symbol?
mass # goes in the "upper-left corner" & atomic # goes in "bottom-left corner"
91
what is an energy level diagram?
a diagram of the atom that includes nucleus (w/ # protons & neutrons) and # of electrons in each energy level outside the nucleus
92
what are the 1st four energy levels?
K-shell
L-shell
M-shell
N-shell
93
what is the capacity of the 1st four energy levels?
K: 2 electrons
L: 8 electrons
M: 18 electrons
N: 32 electrons
94
how do you diagram energy levels?
see notes on 'Atomic Structure'
95
what is are isotopes?
atoms of same element with different number of neutrons (also have diff. mass # & mass in amu)
96
how do you write the isotope of an element?
name of element - mass # OR
| chemical symbol for element - mass #
97
can some isotopes be radioactive?
yes bc they're unstable
98
what are the four types of nuclear radiation?
- alpha particles
- beta particles
- gamma rays
- neutron emission
99
what is the order (from least dangerous to most dangerous) of types of nuclear radiation?
1. alpha particles
2. beta particles
3. gamma rays
4. neutron emission
100
what are alpha particles?
- positively charged & larger than the others
- have a +2 charge
- (He nucleus = 2 protons & 2 neutrons)
- do not travel far
- low energy
- stopped by skin & clothes
- shorthand notation = 4 on top, 2 on bottom, fancy a as the symbol
101
what are beta particles?
- negatively charged; fast moving
- have -1 charge
- formed from decaying neutron
- small mass (almost none) so they can penetrate more substances
- higher energy
- harder to stop (3 mm Al/10 mm wood)
- shorthand: 0 on top, -1 on bottom, either the beta symbol or an e as the symbol
102
what are gamma rays?
- high energy electromagnetic radiation
- far penetrating bc of no mass
- no charge
- all pure energy
- usually associated w/ alpha & beta particles
- more damaging to health
- major concern (very dangerous)
- move very fast
- shorthand: 0 on top, 0 on bottom, fancy "Y" symbol
103
what is neutron emission?
- neutrons
- no charge
- small mass (1 amu)
- high energy
- major concern (very dangerous)
- high speed (stopped w/ over 15 cm Pb)
104
what is nuclear decay?
- process of the unstable nucleus breaking down & releasing particles and/or energy (nuclear radiation)
- occurs in radioactive isotopes
105
what happens in alpha decay?
the element loses 2 protons andn 2 neutrons
106
what happens in beta decay?
mass # does not change, but the atom gains a proton
107
what happens in gamma decay?
- no change in atomic #, just a change in energy
| - often occurs immediately following other types of decay
108
what is a half-life?
- time for the HALF of the radioactive isotopes to undergo nuclear decay & give off nuclear radiation
- time required for half a sample of radioactive nuclei to decay
- other half is still radioactive
- time varies with each isotope
109
how do you solve half-life problems?
- logically
| - best to figure out # half lives first
110
contrast properties of radioactive isotopes versus stable nuclides
- radioactive isotopes will decay
| - stable nuclides will not decay (only unstable nuclides will)
111
what are the uses of radioactive isotopes?
- nuclear power
- fossil dating
- rock dating
- smoke detectors
- food irradiation
- mail irradiation
- treat cancer
- tracers
112
identify 4 types of tracers
I-131 (thyroid)
Na-24 (blood vessels)
Tc-99 (brain)
Gd-153 (bones)
113
what is average atomic mass?
average of all isotopes of an element in nature's mass
114
what is average atomic mass a weighted average of?
the mass of each isotope (in amu) AND the amount of each isotope found (in % or # of atoms)
115
what do you round average atomic mass calculations to?
1 decimal place
116
what is the average atomic mass formula if given the # of atoms for isotope?
Avg. Atomic Mass = # atoms (istope mass) + # atoms (isotope mass) + ... / total # atoms
117
what is the average atomic mass formula if given % of isotopes?
Avg. Atomic Mass = %(isotope mass) + % (isotope mass) + ...
-REMEMBER: change % to decimal AFTER substituting into formula but BEFORE multiplying (basically just change to decimal bc you can't multiply by the actual %)
118
what is a mole?
a specified number chemists use to count the number of representative particles in a substance
119
how many representative particles is 1 mol?
6.02 X 10^23 representative particles
120
what is 6.02 X 10^23?
Avagadro's Number
121
the atomic mass of an element expressed in grams is what?
the mass of a mole of the element
122
what do you use to convert between moles & grams for an element?
- factor-label method
| - see notes/formula sheet for details
123
explain a brief history of the periodic table
- Dmitri Mendeleev:
* published 1st P.T. in 1869
* arranged elements by increasing atomic mass
* set up table w/ 8 columns
* table showed repeating (similar) properties for elements in columns together
- problem: as new elements were discovered & add to P.T., elements in columns showed no repeating properties (needed revision)
- Modern P.T.: Moseley gave atomic # (# protons) to each element & NOW elements are arranged by increasing ATOMIC #
124
describe the periodic table of elements
- has 18 columns (Families)
- has 7 rows (Periods)
- metals on left side
- nonmetals on right side
- metaloids next to stair step line
125
what is a group?
vertical column
126
what is a period?
horizantal row
127
explain the sublevels of electrons in an atom
- 4 types of orbitals (sublevels)
- electron will inhabit lowest energy orbital that can accept it
- orbitals fill from low energy to higher
- each orientation of an orbital can hold 2 e-
128
describe the s orbital
- lowest energy
- spherical shape
- only 1 possible orientation (2 e-)
129
describe the p orbital
- higher energy
- peanut-like or dumb-bell shape
- 3 orientations (6 e- total)
130
describe the d orbital
- even higher energy
- daisyish or double dumb-bell shape
- 5 orientations (10 e- total)
131
describe the f orbital
- highest energy
- very complex shape
- 7 orientations (14 e- total)
132
what is an important rule when it comes to electron filling?
- electrons will fill s & p before d & f
| - full s & p orbitals = stability
133
what is ionization?
- the process of creating an ion (charged particle) by adding or removing valence electrons from an atom
- results in charged, but stable, ion with full outer energy level (8 e-)
134
what is a cation?
- positive ion
- produced by the loss of electrons
- formed by metals
- ions are smaller
135
what is an anion?
- negative ion
- produced by gaining electrons
- formed by nonmetals
- ions are larger
136
describe metals
- left side of P.T. from stair-step line
- solid at room temp. (except Mercury which is a liquid)
- most are silver colored & shiny
- conduct electricity & heat
- can be reshaped (malleable & ductile)
137
describe nonmetals
- right side of P.T. from stair-step line (also hydrogen)
- many are gases (but also has solids/liquids) at room temp.
- do not conduct electricity or heat
- cannot be reshaped (solids are brittle - break up into little pieces)
- electrons are tightly held, don't move freely (unlike metals)
138
do metals tend to gain or lose electrons?
lose (become cations)
139
do nonmetals tend to gain or lose electrons?
gain (become anions)
140
describe metaloids/semiconductors
- next to stair step line
- conduct under special conditions (like metals)
- all other properties (especially chemical) are like nonmetals
141
what is a metallic bond?
the bond formed by the attraction between positively charged metal ions & the e- around them
142
describe metallic bonds
- atoms of metals = tightly packed together causing energy levels to overlap
- overlap allows e- to move freely from atom to atom thus causing electricity
- do not produce compounds (only bond w/ atoms of themselves)
- occurs between ALL metal atoms (usually atoms of same metal element)
143
what are ionic bonds?
- bonds formed between oppositely charged ions (charged atoms)
- formed by transfer of e- (1 atom (metal) loses e- & other (nonmetal) gains them)
- strongest bonds
144
what do ionic bonds form?
ionic compounds
145
what is a covalent bond?
bond formed when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons to make full energy levels
146
what are covalently bonded atoms called?
molecules
147
what do covalent bonds form between?
nonmetals
148
what do covalent bonds form?
covalent compounds
149
what is a nonpolar covalent bond & a polar covalent bond?
nonpolar: e- are shared equally
polar: e- are shared unequally
150
what is the difference between ionic & covalent bonds?
ionic: transfer of electrons between metals & nonmetals
covalent: sharing of electrons between nonmetals
151
which elements are metals?
- transition metals
- Lanthanide Series & Actinide Series
- Groups 1 & 2
- metals under stair step line
152
describe alkali metals
- Group 1
- metals
- most reactive metals on P.T. (only found in nature in compounds)
- number of valence e- is 1
- forms a +1 charge cation by losing one valence e-
153
describe alkaline earth metals
- Group 2
- metals
- very reactive (2nd only to alkali metals)
- only found in nature in compounds
- number of valence e- is 2
- forms 2+ charge cation by losing valence e-
154
describe transition elements
- groups 3 to 12
- metals
- most are reactive (slightly less than groups 1 & 2)
- number of valence e- is 1-4
- forms 1+, 2+, 3+, 4+ chrarge cations by losing valence e-
- only liquid metal: Hg
- contians the Iron Triad, Platinum Family, & Coinage Metals
155
what kind of elements are found in the lanthanides, actinides, & transuranium areas?
manmade elements & radioactive elements
156
where is the Lanthanide Series located?
first row on detached bottom section of P.T.
157
where is the Actinide Series found?
the 2nd row of the detached bottom part of the P.T.
158
what are transuranium elements?
- elements listed after uranium
| - atomic number 93 to 118
159
what section of the P.T. does hydrogen belong to?
- nonmetals (it's a typical nonmetal)
| - only one on left side of P.T.
160
describe halogens
- Group 17
- nonmetals
- most reactive nonmetals on P.T.
- 7 valence electrons
- forms 1- charge anion by gaining valence e-
161
describe noble gases
- Group 18
- nonmetals
- inert (unreactive)
- do not gain or lose valence e-
- have 8 valence e- (except He which has 2)
162
describe the mixed groups
- groups that contain metals, metaloids (semiconductors), & nonmetals
- Groups 13, 14, 15, & 16
163
what is a diatomic molecule?
- two atoms of the same element with a covalent bond
| - always diatomic when not in a compound
164
what are the 7 diatomic molecules?
```
H₂
N₂
F₂
O₂
Br₂
I₂
Cl₂
```
165
what is the saying to remember the diatomic molecules?
"Have No Fear Of Brownie Ice Cleam!!"
166
define allotropes
molecules of the same element that have different structures (arrangements)
167
describe allotropes
- natururally occuring
| - tend to be nonmetals
168
give an example of an allotrope
carbon ---> diamond, graphite, fullerene
169
describe how a compound differs from the elements it is composed of
properties of the compound are different than properites of the elements in it
170
what is a compound?
a chemical combonation of 2 or more elements
171
what does a chemical formula represent?
an element or compound using chemical symbols for the elements & subscripts for the # of each element (if more than 1)
172
what is the octet rule?
in order for an element to be stable, it must have 8 electrons on its outer shell
173
what is an octet's role in forming compounds between elements?
all elements want to have the octet so their bonds between each other are based off of their need for 8 valence electrons to achieve stability
174
why does chemical bonding occur?
so elements can become chemically stable (bond so that they can have 8 valence electrons thus achieving stability)
175
explain electronegativity
- relative tendency for an element to attract e- when bonded in a compound (e- affinity)
- # value (no units)
- can be used to predict bond types
176
identify the electronegativity ranges
ionic bond: 1.6 and above
polar covalent: 0.3-1.6
nonpolar covalent: 0-0.3
177
describe the electronegativity of metals & nonmetals
- metals: lower electronegativity, need to lose valence e-
| - nonmetals: higher electronegativity, need to gain valence e-
178
why is the sharing of electrons unequal in a polar covalent bond?
bc one atom has a stronger attraction for electrons (electrons spend more time near atom w/ stronger attraction)
179
describe ionic compounds
- contain metals & nonmetals
- high melting & boiling points
- solids at room temp. (crystalline structure)
- easily dissolve in water
- conduct electricity in molten (liquid) state when dissolved in water
- neutral charge
180
describe the characteristics of polar covalent compounds
- contain only nonmetals
- lower melting & boiling points
- easily dissolve in water
- conduct electricity only some when dissolved in water
- solids/liquids/gases at room temp.
181
describe the characteristics of nonpolar covalent compounds
- contain only nonmetals
- very low melting & boiling points
- solids/liquids/gases at room temp.
- insoluble in water
- will NOT conduct electricity
182
what is an oxidation number?
- positive or negative number assigned to an element to show its ability to combine in a compound
- indicates # of e- gained/lost (or shared) when bonding with another atom
183
how do you determine oxidation numbers for metals?
- lose e- so oxidation # will be positive
| - count (going left) to noble gases from element, & that number is the oxidation number (along with the + sign)
184
how do you determine the oxidation # of nonmetals?
- gain e-, so negative oxidation #
| - count (going right) to the noble gases from element & that # is the oxidation # (along with a - sign)
185
how do you determine the oxidation number of transition elements?
will be indicated by Roman Numerals (always positive oxidation number, 1-4)
186
how do you determine the oxidation # of noble gases?
TRICK QUESTION: noble gases have no oxidation #s
187
what is a monotamic ion?
single element with a charge
188
what is a polyatomic ion?
- positively or negatively charged group of atoms
- 2 or more atoms w/ a charge
- act as one unit, can't be split
189
what are binary compounds?
chemical compounds containing only 2 different elements (ex. NaCl)
190
what are polyatomic compounds?
chemical compounds containing more than 2 different elements (contains at least 1 polyatomic ion)
191
ammonium
NH₄
192
carbonate
CO₃
193
hydroxide
OH
194
nitrate
NO₃
195
phosphate
PO₄
196
sulfate
SO₄
197
sulfite
SO₃
198
chromate
CrO₄
199
chlorate
ClO₃
200
how do you name ionic compounds?
1. write name of element w/ positive oxidation # (include Roman Numerals)
2. write root of element w/ negative oxidation # & add -ide OR
2. if polyatomic, just write the name with no -ide
201
how do you write the formula of covalent compounds?
1. Do NOT criss-cross
2. use prefix system to identify the number of atoms of each element in the molecule
3. DO NOT reduce subscripts
202
how do you name covalent compounds?
1. 1st element gets a prefix, unless it has only 1 atom (omit the mono)
2. 2nd element always gets a prefix and an 'ide' suffix
3. if the prefix ends with "a" or "o", leave vowel off of element (oxides) (ex. don't say mono-oxide, just monoxide)
203
what are the prefixes used when naming covalent compounds?
```
1 - mono
2 - di
3 - tri
4 - tetra
5 - penta
6 - hexa
7 - hepta
8 - octa
9 - nona
10 - deca
```
204
what is formula mass?
the sum of the average atomic masses (amu) of all the atoms represented in its formula
205
what is molar mass?
the mass of one mole of a chemical compound, or the mass of 6.02 X 10^23 molecules of a compound (numerically equal to formula mass)
206
what is formula mass rounded to?
2 decimal places
207
what is mass # rounded to?
whole number
208
what is the average atomic mass rounded to when doing formula mass problems?
not rounded unless specified
209
what is the formula for finding formula mass?
atoms (amu) + # atoms (amu) + ...
210
what are the 3 steps in converting molar mass?
1. write the formula
2. calculate the molar mass (to the hundreths place - 2 decimal places)
3. set up the conversion using the factor-label method
211
what are the sig figs of the final answer in molar mass conversions based off of?
the given quantity
212
what is an empirical formula?
- simplest chemical formula
- indicates the lowest whole # ratio of atoms in the compound
- may not be the way the molecule is found in nature
213
what is a molecular formula?
chemical formula that shows the actual # of atoms of each element in the compound
214
oxidation # of zinc (Zn)
2+
215
oxidation # of silver (Ag)
1+
216
what is bond length?
average distance between nuclei of bonded atoms
217
what is bond angle?
the angle formed by 2 bonds to the same atom
218
what is a bond axis?
the imaginary straight line that connects the nuclei of atoms bonded to each other in a molecule
219
what is the unit for molar mass?
g/mol
220
what is the unit for formula mass?
amu
221
what is a saturated hydrocarbon?
single bonds on all sides
222
what is an unsaturated hydrocarbon?
not all single bonds on all sides - could have a double & 2 singles, 2 doubles, a triple & a single, etc. (not all 4 sides are bonding)
223
what are isomers?
- compounds with the same chemical formula, but different molecular structures
- have similar properties
- unbranched have increasing melting & boiling points
224
what is an aromatic hydrocarbon?
- has benzene ring structure
| - most have odors
225
what is an aliphatic hydrocarbon?
all others (ones that don't have benzene rings)
226
what are alkanes? what is their general formula?
- saturated hydrocarbons (all single bonds)
- least complex
- CnH2n+2
227
what are alkenes?
- unsaturated
- double bond [could be more than just 1 though]-
- CnH2n
228
what are alkynes?
- unsaturated
- triple bond [could be more than just 1 though]
- CnH2n-2
229
what are the prefixes in organic chemistry?
```
1 - meth
2 - eth
3 - prop
4 - but
5 - pent
6 - hex
7 - hept
8 - oct
9 - non
10 - dec
```
230
what is the formula for Benzene?
C6H6
231
what does Benzene form?
ring with 3 double bonds & 3 single bonds
232
what is benzene called as an attached group?
a phenyl group
233
what are substituted hydrocarbons?
- compounds where hydrogen is replaced with a different element
- results in a more reactive compound
234
what does 'R' represent in organic chemistry?
'r'est of the compound
235
what is a hydrocarbon substituted with halogens called?
halocarbon
236
how do you name halocarbons?
just change name of halogen so that it end in 'o' (& obviously there's the alkane name & attached groups & such)
ex. chlorine --> chloro
237
what indicates that a substituted hydrocarbon is an alcohol?
the OH group
238
what indicates that a substituted hydrocarbon is an organic acid?
- the carboxyl group (aka carboxylic acid)
| - COOH
239
what is the 'set-up' of a carboxyl group?
carbon with a double bond to the oxygen & a single bond to the OH
240
what is an ester?
- has artificial odors & colors
| - formed by a reaction between an alcohol & an organic acid
241
what is the reaction between an alcohol & an organic acid called?
esterification
242
what are attached groups?
groups with one less H than alkanes
243
what are polymers?
- large molecules made of small organic molecules linked together (bonded)
- same molecules bonded in chains
244
what are monomers?
smaller molecules; polymers are chains of attached monomers
245
how are polymers created?
through condensation reactions (molecules are joined through the removal of H₂O)
246
how are polymers broken?
through hydrolysis reactions (where H₂O is added)
247
what are carbohydrates?
- organic compounds with a 2:1 ratio of H:O
| - sugars (simple) & starches (complex)
248
what are monosaccharides?
simplest sugars (1)
249
what are disaccharides?
2 simple sugars bonded
250
what are polysaccharides?
- starches
- polymers of monosaccharides which may be broken down into simple sugars in digestion
- provide organism w/ source of energy
251
what are lipids?
- fats, oil, & waxes
- not very soluble in H₂O
- less O than carbohydrates
- prevalent in cell membranes due to low H₂O solubility
- excellent energy storage
252
what is the structure of lipids like?
fatty acids ---> contain carboxyl group (COOH)
253
what are plant lipids?
- oils & waxes (liquid/solid)
| - many are unsaturated but can be hydrogenated (add a H to make solid)
254
what are animal lipids?
- fats (solid)
| - generally saturated
255
what are proteins?
-polymers of amino acids that create muscles, tendons, hair, fingernails & enzymes
256
what identifies proteins as proteins?
amino acids have a carboxyl group (COOH) & an amino group (-NH₂)
257
what are nucleic acids?
-polymers of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate & N - base)
258
what is DNA?
- deoxyribonucleic acid
- found in nucleus of cells
- codes for protein synthesis (genetic info)
- double helix structure
259
what is RNA?
- ribonucleic acid
- made from DNA instructions
- carries code of DNA
- single helix structure
- contains production of proteins
260
what are reactants?
one or more substances (elements/compounds) that reaction starts with (left side)
261
what are products?
one or more NEW substances (elements/compounds) formed from reaction (right side)
262
how do chemical reactions satisfy the law of conservation of mass (matter cannot be created nor destroyed)?
- same # & kind of atoms going into reactions (in reactants) MUST come out of reaction (in products)
- mass of reactants = mass of products
- reason all chemical reactions MUST BE BALANCED
263
what does ---> mean in a chemical equation?
yields / forms / makes / produces
264
what does + mean in a chemical equation?
plus / and / combined with
265
what does (s) [or (cr)] mean in a chemical equation?
solid
266
what does (l) mean in a chemical equation?
liquid
267
what does (g) mean in a chemical equation?
gas
268
what does (aq) mean in a chemical equation?
aqueous solution (solid dissolved in water)
269
what do terms over the ----> mean?
item is needed for reaction to occur
270
what does the delta sign over ----> mean?
heat
271
what is meant by a balanced chemical equation?
there is the same number of each kind of atom on each side of the equation
272
what is a synthesis reaction?
2 or more substances combine to form 1 product
273
what is a decomposition reaction?
- one reactant breaks down into 2 or more substances (products)
- usually requires energy to occur
274
what is a single displacement reaction?
one element replaces another in a compound
275
what is a double displacement reaction?
- positive ions exchange places in compounds
| - usually 2 compounds on left form 2 diff. compounds on right
276
what do double displacement reactions usually produce?
a precipitate
277
what is a combustion reaction?
reaction of compound (hydrocarbon) with oxygen producing water & carbon dioxide
278
what is a precipitate?
an insoluble solid
279
what is stoichiometry?
the calculation of the quantities of reactants & products involved in a chemical reaction
280
what are the 3 steps in stoichiometry?
1. covert given quantity to moles
2. determine mole-mole ratio
3. convert to desired units
281
what is an endothermic reaction?
- energy is absorbed during the rxn
| - requires addition of energy to proceed
282
what is an exothermic reaction?
- energy is given off during rxn
| - spontaneous
283
what are some factors that increase the rate of reaction?
- increase in temp. & pressure
- more surface area
- concentrated solutions
284
what is something that decreases the rate of reaction?
larger molecules
285
what are catalysts? & what do they do the reaction?
substances that decrease the energy required to activate a rxn (get things going w/ less energy, make it faster)
286
what is an example of a catalyst?
enzymes
287
what are inhibitors?
substances that slow down reactions
288
what is an example of an inhibitor?
food preservatives
289
what is an equilibrium?
the balanced state in which a chemical reaction & its reverse occur at the same time & at the same rate
290
what is Le Chatlier's Principle?
when a system at equilibrium is disturbed, it finds a new equilibrium that reduces the effects of the disturbance
291
what is a saturated solution?
contains maximum amount of solute at a given temp., "full"
292
what is an unsaturated solution?
contains less than maximum amount of solute, can still hold more solute
293
what is a supersaturated solution?
- more solute than the solvent should be able to hold
- very unstable
- result of carefully cooling saturated solution from higher temp.
294
what is a solute?
that which is being dissolved
295
what is a solvent?
that which is doing the dissolving?
296
what is the universal solvent?
water (H₂O)
297
explain the dissolving process
- "like dissolves like"
- charged solvents (polar or ionic) will only dissolve charged solutes
- uncharged (nonpolar) solvents will only dissolve nonpolar solutes
298
what factors increase the rate of dissolving of a solid in a liquid?
- increase temp.
- agitate
- increase surface area
299
what factors increase the rate of dissolving of a gas in a liquid?
- decrease temp.
| - increase pressure
300
what is enthalpy?
energy of a substance mainly due to motion of particles
301
what is the enthalpy change of a solid in a liquid?
- positive
| - increase in energy as solid dissolves
302
what is the enthalpy change of a gas in a liquid?
- negative change
| - decrease in energy as gas dissolves
303
what is the enthalpy change of a liquid in a liquid?
zero
304
what is ionization?
forms ions as polar covalent compounds are pulled apart by H₂O in the dissolving process
305
what is dissociation?
it will break apart / separate ions as the ionic solute dissolves
306
what is the difference between dissociation & ionization?
dissociation will break apart ions whereas ionization will form them
307
what are electrolytes?
substances whose solutions conduct electricity
308
what are nonelectrolytes?
substances that do not form ions in solutions therefore don't conduct electricity
309
explain how the addition of a solute to a solvent affects the solvent's freezing & melting points
- lowers freezing point [solute interferes w/ liquid's ability to form crystals (freeze)] [lose KE]
- raises boiling point [solute interferes with liquid's ability to evaporate/vaporize] [gain KE]
310
what is solubility?
the maximum amount of solute (in grams) that will dissolve in 100 g of solvent at a given temp.
311
discuss how solubility varies among diff. solutes & diff. temperatures
every solute is different & generally as temp. is raised, solute has more solubility & as temp. is lowered, solute has less solubility
312
what is concentration?
a measure of the amount of solute in a given amount of solvent or solution
313
what does concentrated mean?
more solute
314
what does dilute mean?
less solute
315
what is the molarity formula?
Molarity (C) = amount of solute (mol) / volume of solution (L)
316
what is molarity?
- a concentration unit
| - relates mol solute to volume of solution in dm³
317
what is the difference between M and mol?
```
M = molarity
mol = moles
```
318
define acids
substances that produce hydrogen ions (H^+) in solution with water resulting in a hydronium ion (H₃O^+)
319
define bases
substances that contain or form hydroxide ions (OH^-) in a water solution
320
describe the characteristic properites of acids
- sour taste
- corrosive
- react w/ indicators
- electrolytes
321
describe the characteristic properties of bases
- feel slippery
- taste bitter
- corrosive to skin
- react w/ indicators
- electrolytes
322
list the 4 common strong acids
- sulfuric acid
- phosphoric acid
- nitric acid
- hydrochloric acid
323
sulfuric acid
H₂SO₄
324
phosphoric acid
H₃PO₄
325
nitric acid
HNO₃
326
hydrochloric acid
HCl
327
list 2 common weak acids
hydrofluoric acid
| boric acid
328
hydrofluoric acid
HF
329
boric acid
H₃BO₃
330
list the 4 common bases
ammonia
sodium hydroxide
calcium hydroxide
potassium hydroxide
331
ammonia
NH₃
332
sodium hydroxide
NaOH
333
calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)₂
334
potassium hydroxide
KOH
335
what is the use of ammonia?
as a cleaner
336
what is the use of sodium hydroxide?
lye (used to unclog drains)
337
what is the use of calcium hydroxide?
plaster
338
is strength always related to concentration?
no
339
what kind of solutions are acids & bases?
aqueous
340
how are acids formed?
- by the ionization of a polar compound as it dissolves
- H removed from solute as H^+
- H^+ combines with H₂O to make H₃O^+
- remaining part of solute is the anion
341
how are bases formed?
-by the dissociation of an ionic compound as it dissolves
342
what is the exception in the formation of bases?
NH₃ (ammonia) --> polar so it ionizes
343
what determines the strength of an acid or base?
how much they ionize or dissociate - if they fully ionize/dissociate, they will be a lot stronger than if they partially ionize/dissociate
344
define pH
the measure of the concentration of hydronium ions in a solution
345
what does pH stand for?
per hydrogen (or potential of hydrogen)
346
what is the pH scale?
0-14
347
what is midpoint/neutral on the pH scale?
7
348
which part of the pH scale is acidic?
0-7
| lower the # = stronger the acid
349
which part of the pH scale is basic (alkali)?
7-14
| higher the # = stronger the base
350
what is a neutralization reaction?
a chemical reaction between an acid & a base which forms an ionic compound (salt) & water
351
describe a neutralization reaction
- the H₃O^+ from the acid combines with the OH^- from the base to form 2H₂O
- meanwhile, anion from the acid combines with the cation from the base to form a salt
- double displacement reaction
- as ions are removed, acidic & basic properties of solution are cancelled
- resulting solution won't always have pH of 7
352
what is the basic outline of a neutralization reaction?
ACID + BASE = SALT + WATER
353
what does a neutralization reaction between an acid & a metal form?
a salt & hydrogen gas
acid + metal --> salt + H₂
354
what is salt?
an ionic compound
355
how is salt formed?
from the positive ion of the base & the negative ion from the acid in a neutralization reaction
356
what are some uses of acids & bases in general?
- soaps
- detergents
- disinfectants
- bleach
- antacids
- shampoos
- preserve freshness of fruit
- acids can tenderize meats
- acids can make yogurt
- bases (like baking soda & powder) are used in cooking
356
what are some uses of acids & bases in general?
- soaps
- detergents
- disinfectants
- bleach
- antacids
- shampoos
- preserve freshness of fruit
- acids can tenderize meats
- acids can make yogurt
- bases (like baking soda & powder) are used in cooking
From Flashcardlet
flashcards
Decks in class (27)
# Cards
-
Scriptures 1A Intro to Gospels51
-
Joshua Study Questions32
-
Scriptures OT Test77
-
Science Mid-Year Terms99
-
Judges Study Info22
-
Polyatomic Ions16
-
French Travel Vocabulary60
-
Shakespeare Literary Terms11
-
French Adverbs41
-
The Acts of the Apostles83
-
French Vocab: La Maison133
-
Acts of the Apostles Student Study Guide50
-
Scriptures: Paul76
-
World Genres Literary Terms41
-
French Vocab: Unit 8B (House-Hold Stuff)54
-
Scriptures Final Flashcards146
-
Science Concepts Final Part II358
-
Math Final57
-
French Irregular Verbs70
-
Art Appreciation Vocabulary14
-
French III Expressions Utiles74
-
French Words to know from Blue Paper132
-
chemistry chapter 3+2235
-
Govt Giant Test100
-
molecular biology53
-
molecular biology53
-
Humanities assesment - Anglo-Saxons, Middle Ages, and Canterbury Tales32
