Test 4 (chp 40-43)

Question 1

Homeostasis:

Answer 1

The steady state physiological condition of the body
Internal balance
Maintaining a relatively constant internal environment even when the external environment changes significantly

Question 2

Positive Homeostasis/Feedback:

Answer 2

Triggers mechanisms that amplifies the stimulus
Enhances changes to enable a system to move away from its equilibrium state and cause it to be more unstable
EX: child birth, clotting, lactation
Longer situation; overtime

Question 3

Negative Homeostasis/Feedback:

Answer 3

A response that reduces, or “damps,” the stimulus
Buffers change to allow a system to stay at an equilibrium and cause it to be more stable
EX: body temperature, heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, etc…
Immediate situations

Question 4

Epithelial Tissue

Answer 4

Covers the outside of the body for protection,lines organs and cavities within the body, and absorption/secretion
EX: cuboidal epithelium, simple columnar epithelium, pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, stratified squamous epithelium, and simple squamous

Question 5

Connective Tissue

Answer 5

Binds/supports other tissues in the body; secrete extracellular substance
EX: loose connective tissue, tendons/ligaments, cartilage, adipose tissue, blood, bone, and fibrous connective tissue

Question 6

Muscle Tissue

Answer 6

Responsible for all types of body movement
EX: skeletal (aka striated)-attached to bones, cardia -heart, and smooth-blood vessels/digestive organs/reproductive organs

Question 7

Nervous Tissue

Answer 7

Sense stimuli and transmit signals in the form of nerve impulses from one part of the animal to another
EX: Neurons (nerve cells), supporting cells

Question 8

mouth enzymes

Answer 8

Salivary amylase
An enzyme in saliva, hydrolyzes starch and glycogen into smaller polysaccharides into disaccharide in the oral cavity (if starch-it breaks down into maltose)

Question 9

esophagus enzymes

Answer 9

none

Question 10

stomach enzymes

Answer 10

Pepsinogen and HCl
Pepsinogen=a protease, or protein-digesting enzyme in the stomach
Both breaks proteins down to large polypeptides to smaller polypeptides

Question 11

small intestine enzymes from the small intestine

Answer 11

Occurs in the duodenum
From the sm. intestine: Disaccharidases-Breaks down disaccharides into monosaccharides
Dipeptidase/Carboxypeptidases-Breaks smaller polypeptides into amino acids
Nucleosidare-Breaks down into nitrogen base, sugar, and phosphates
Bicarbonate-Neutralizes the acidity of chyme and acts as a buffer in the small intestine

Question 12

insulin/glucagon homeostasis

Answer 12

The hormones insulin and glucagon maintain glucose homeostasis by tightly regulating glycogen synthesis and breakdown

Question 13

function of oral cavity

Answer 13

Mechanical digestion begins as teeth break down the food and increases the foods surface area
Chemical Digestion due to salivary Glands
Secretes saliva into the mouth to being chemical digestion of carbohydrates in the oral cavity

Question 14

function of pharynx

Answer 14

No digestion
Opens to two passageways: the esophagus and the trachea
The epiglottis prevents food from traveling down the trachea

Question 15

function of esophagus

Answer 15

Connects the oral cavity to the mouth

Peristalsis occurs to transport the food

Question 16

function of the stomach

Answer 16

Primarily stores food and continues digestion
Chemical digestion due to the secretions of digestive fluid called gastric juice and then mechanical digestion due to the mixing and muscle contraction that mixes the secretion with the food through a churning action
Breaks down proteins with the help of pepsin

Question 17

function of the small intestine

Answer 17

Enzymatic hydrolysis of macromolecules
Three Parts:
Duodenum (first 25cm)-Chemical Digestion: Chyme that came from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder, as well as from the gland cells of the intestinal wall itself
Jejunum/Ileum: Absorption of nutrients and water and puts it into the bloodstream

Question 18

function of large intestine

Answer 18

Absorption of H20
Vitamin production (vitamin K but some E coli)
Includes the colon, cecum, and rectum
Colon: Recover water that has entered the alimentary canal as the solvent of digestive juices
Cecum: Important for fermenting ingested material
Appendix extends from the cecum
Rectum: Where feces are stored before they are eliminated

Question 19

function of anus

Answer 19

where feces are eliminated

Question 20

function of pancreas

Answer 20

Aids in chemical digestion by producing an alkaline solution rich in bicarbonate as well as trypsin and chymotrypsin into the small intestine
Creates digestion enzymes

Question 21

function of liver

Answer 21

Produces bile
Breaks down toxins that enters the body
Helps balance nutrient utilization

Question 22

function of gallbladder

Answer 22

where bile is stored and concentrated

Question 23

What is peristalsis

Answer 23

Peristalsis are alternating waves of contraction and relaxation in smooth muscle lining
Rhythmic waves of contractions
It is able to work against gravity

Question 24

Conditions for Fick’s law of diffusion

Answer 24

States that all gases, including O2 and CO2, diffuse in the largest amounts when three conditions are met: (passive transport)
The surface area for gas exchange is large
The respiratory surface is extremely thin
The partial pressure gradient of the gas across the surface is large

Question 25

Blood Type A

Answer 25

Anti-B antibodies | A antigens

Question 26

Blood Type B

Answer 26

Anti-A antibodies | B antigens

Question 27

Blood Type AB

Answer 27

no antibodies | A and B antigens

Question 28

Blood Type O

Answer 28

Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies | no antigens

Question 29

what determines blood type

Answer 29

antigens

Question 30

Know conditions that might affect the amount of oxygen carried in the blood

Answer 30

Iron deficiency (anemia), amount of red blood cells, not enough hemoglobin, sickle cell disorder, conditions in the air: high levels (low altitude) or low levels (high altitude) of oxygen depending on altitude, pH of blood, Diseases: asthma/COPD

Question 31

Commonalities of all gas exchange systems

Answer 31

You need a moist membrane/surface | Need a partial pressure gradient to move the gases

Question 32

What is a pulse

Answer 32

The rhythmic bulging of the artery walls with each heartbeat where blood is propelled Measure of heart rate due to contraction and relaxation of the muscle when it pumps Basically the heart rate

Question 33

Be able to explain how blood gets back through veins

Answer 33

``` Valves Pressure (some but it is low) Milking of skeletal muscles The muscles are contracting to push the blood through AKA skeletal muscle contractions ```

Question 34

Be able to tell which organ would be next following a drop of blood in the circ system

Answer 34

1) Contraction of the right ventricle pumps blood towards the lungs via 2) The pulmonary arteries. As the blood flows through it enters 3) Capillary beds in the left and right lungs, it loads O2 and unloads CO2. Oxygen rich blood returns from the lungs via the pulmonary veins to the 4) Left atrium of the heart. Next, the oxygen-rich blood flows into the 5) Left ventricle, which pumps the oxygen-rich blood out to the body tissues through the systemic circuit. Blood leaves the left ventricle via 6) The aorta, which conveys blood to arteries leading throughout the body. The first branches from the aorta are the coronary arteries (not shown), which supply blood to the heart muscle itself. Then branches lead to 7) Capillary beds in the head and arms (forelimbs). The aorta then descends into the abdomen, supplying oxygen-rich blood to arteries leading to 8) Capillary beds on the abdominal organs and legs (hindlimbs). Within the capillaries, there is a net diffusion of O2 from the blood to the tissues and of CO2 produced by cellular respiration into the blood. Capillaries rejoin, forming venules, which convey blood to veins. Oxygen-poor blood from the head, neck, and forelimbs are channeled into a large vein, 9) The superior vena cava. Another large vein, 10) The inferior vena cava, drains blood from the trunk and hind limbs. The two venae empty their blood into 11) The right atrium, from which the oxygen poor blood flows into 12) The right ventricle and the entire process repeats itself.

Question 35

nonspecific immune responses

Answer 35

Nonspecific immune response (aka innate immunity) Active immediately upon infection and are the same whether or not the pathogen has been encountered previously Includes: First Line of Defense: (The barrier defenses) EX: skin, secretions (sweat, tears, oil glands) mucous membranes Second Line of Defense: Defenses that combat pathogens after they enter the body EX: macrophages, phagocytic cells, natural killer cells, dendritic cells, inflammatory response: Inflammatory response is composed and releases histamines that cause redness, swelling/inflammation, fever/heat, and pain Occurs for protection (inflammation), raise in temperature to kill bacteria, pain to know something is wrong, and blood flow (redness) for healing It is generic and happens against all pathogens

Question 36

specific immune responses

Answer 36

Immune responses are activated after innate immune defenses take effect and develop more slowly This immune response is enhanced by previous exposure to the infecting pathogen EX: Synthesis of proteins that inactivate a bacterial toxin and the targeted killing of a virally infected body cell Each of the many different kinds of receptors recognizes a feature typically found only on a particular part of a particular molecule in a particular microbe Detects pathogens with a great amount of specificity Against specific pathogens and will only work against those specific ones Responsible: B and the T cells are responsible for this response (lymphocytes) B cells create the antibodies against the pathogen T cells will deal with the infected cells

Question 37

Look at the primary and secondary immune responses graph and understand what happens during first exposure and second exposure

Answer 37

Primary immune response is the first time you are exposed to that pathogen where an antigen produces a small amount of antibodies over a long amount of time due to the plasma cells. Secondary immune response is the second time the body is exposed to that pathogen due to the memory cells where the same antigen produces a large amount of antibodies over a short amount of time.

Question 38

Know what happens when macrophages ingest bacteria

Answer 38

Phagocytosis/endocytosis: A portion of the membrane will enclose it to form a vessel with it enclosed The vessel will fuse with the lysosome which destroys the bacteria The broken pieces are then pushed out of the macrophage but a piece is saved and displayed on the macrophages surface for memory t cells to use CD4 protein to sense and feel the shape of the antigen; therefore, b cells know what type of antibodies to produce Class 1: attract cytotoxic T cells Class 2: attracts helper T cells

Question 39

If someone was given an immunization, what would happen to them if they were exposed to the pathogen they were vaccinated against?

Answer 39

They are more likely to fight it off and fight it faster because it has already been exposed to it before so it will recognize it. Antibodies are forced to be produced (memory cells) which acts as the body's primary exposure and then when you are exposed it will be the secondary response

Question 40

humoral immune response

Answer 40

Occurs in the humors (liquids) of the body (EX: blood, lymph) Involves the activation and clonal selection of effector B cells, which secrete/make antibodies that circulate in the blood and lymph

Question 41

Cell-Mediated Immune Response

Answer 41

Occurs at the infected cell (which can be in any tissue in the body) Involves the activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic T cells (MHC Class 1), which identify and destroy the target cells by releasing cytotoxic chemicals that causes hole in the membrane of the cell which causes fluids to rush in and kill it, and helper T cells (MHC Class 2), the infected cell will cause the helper T cells to release chemicals called cytokines which will trigger B cells to undergo clonal selection or can tell cytotoxic T cells to get involved Macrophages present antigens that T cells react to

Question 42

Which cells are affected by HIV

Answer 42

Helper T cells

Question 43

what happens to insulin/glucagon homeostasis when you eat

Answer 43

When you eat, glucose increases, the pancreas produces insulin which helps glucose get in the cell from the bloodstream and helps store extra glucose in liver and muscle cells as glycogen

Question 44

what happens to insulin/glucagon homeostasis when you skip a meal

Answer 44

If you do not eat, glucose decreases, the pancreas releases glucagon to the bloodstream (it is a signal molecule that goes to the receptors on the liver) once it travels to the liver it causes glycogen to be broken down the molecule into glucose by hydrolysis to get released back into the bloodstream

Question 45

small intestine enzymes from the pancreas

Answer 45

Occurs in duodenum Pancreatic amylase: Breaking disaccharides into monosaccharides Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidases: Breaks small polypeptides down into smaller polypeptides in the small intestine Nucleases: Nucleotides into nucleosides Pancreatic lipase: breakdown small fat globules to glycerol, fatty acids

Question 46

small intestine enzymes from the liver/gallbladder

Answer 46

Occurs in duodenum From liver/gallbladder: Bile-Breaks down fat into fat droplets Contains bile salts which act as detergents (emulsifiers) that aid in digestion and absorption of lipids