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anatomy & physiology > the blood > Flashcards

the blood Flashcards

1
Q

PLASMA (approx. 55% of blood)

A

main constituent = water (90-92%), carrying a range of dissolved and suspended substances such as:
-plasma proteins
-nutrients (principally from digested food)
-inorganic salts (electrolytes)
-waste products
-hormones
-gases

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2
Q

PLASMA PROTEINS

A

-approx. 7% of plasma
-mostly albumin and fibrinogen
-retained within blood due to large size (unable to leave through capillary pores into tissues)

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3
Q

importance of plasma proteins

A

-responsible for creating osmotic pressure of blood
-this keeps the plasma fluid within circulation
-if plasma protein levels fall, fluid will shift into tissues and body cavities

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4
Q

where are plasma proteins formed ?

A

the liver (with the exception of immunoglobins)

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5
Q

albumins

A

-most abundant plasma protein (~60%)
-main function: maintain normal plasma osmotic pressure
-act as carrier molecules for free fatty acids, some drugs and steroid hormones

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6
Q

globulins

A

main function:
-as antibodies (immunoglobins), are complex proteins produced by lymphocytes and play an important role in immunity
-transport of some hormones and mineral salts
-inhibition of some proteolytic enzymes

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7
Q

clotting factors

A

-most abundant clotting factor is fibrinogen
-responsible for coagulation of blood
-(serum is plasma where clotting factors are removed)

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8
Q

NUTRIENTS

A

-essential for cellular growth and metabolism
-e.g. glucose, amino acids + vitamins
-are transported in the bloodstream from site of production/absorption to the tissues to be stored or used immediately

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9
Q

WASTE PRODUCTS

A

-e.g. urea, creatinine + uric acid
-formed in the liver
-carried in blood to kidneys for excretion
-CO2 from tissue metabolism transported to lungs for excretion

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10
Q

ELECTROLYTES

A

large range of functions:
-muscle contraction (Ca2+)
-transmission of nerve impulses (Ca2+, K+, Na+)
-maintenance of acid-base balance (phosphate PO4^3-)

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11
Q

HORMONES

A

-chemical messengers
-synthesised by endocrine glands
-secreted into blood then transported to their target tissues and organs

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12
Q

GASES

A

-O2 not very soluble in water, only <2% can be transported dissolved in plasma
-O2 bound to haemoglobin (Hb) in RBCs as oxyhaemoglobin (>98%)
-Hb also binds CO2 but most CO2 is converted into bicarbonate ions in RBCs, then transported in plasma

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13
Q

THREE typess of blood cell

A

-erythrocytes (red cells)
-leukocytes (white cells)
-platelets (thrombocytes)

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14
Q

where are most blood cells synthesised ?

A

in red bone marrow (some lymphocytes produced in lymphoid tissue)

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15
Q

pluripotency

A

the ability to develop into one of a number of cell types

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16
Q

what is a feature of all blood cells formed in the bone marrow ?

A

they all originate from pluripotent stem cells

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17
Q

what is the name of the process of blood cell formation ?

A

haemopoiesis

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18
Q

how does bone marrow change with age ?

A

-first few years of life: red marrow completely fills the space within the bone
-next 20 years of life: largely replaced by fatty yellow marrow w/ no haemopoietic function

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19
Q

where does haemopoiesis occur in adults ?

A

in the skeleton it is confined to:
-flat bones
-irregular bones
-ends of long bones
main sites:
-pelvis (but also sternum + skull)

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20
Q

ERTHROCYTES (red blood cells)

A

-most abundant type of blood cell (99% of all blood cells)
-biconcave discs w/ NO nucleus
-diameter: approx. 7 µm

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21
Q

main function of erythrocytes

A

transport of gas (mainly O2, but some CO2)

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22
Q

importance of RBCs shape/structure

A

-biconcavity increases their SA for gas exchange
-thin central (dip) portion allows gases to enter and exit rapidly
-are flexible so can squeeze through narrow capillaries
-contain NO intracellular organelles to allow for maximal Hb content
-flat shape enables stacking within bloodstream to reduce turbulence

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23
Q

lifespan of erythrocytes

A

-approx. 120 days in circulation
-approx. 25% of body’s total cell count
-due to having no nucleus they are unable to divide
-must be constantly replaced by new cells from red bone marrow

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24
Q

how long does erythropoiesis take ?

A

approx. 7 days

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25
Q

erythropoiesis (process of erythrocyte development from stem cells)

A

-immature cells are released into the bloodstream as RETICULOCYTES
-then mature into ERTHROCYTES over a few days
-during this time they LOSE their NUCLEUS, becoming INCAPABLE of cell division

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26
Q

what is required for RBC synthesis ?

A

-vitamin B12 (must be bound to intrinsic factor for absorption)
-folic acid
they are absorbed in the S.intestine (both vitamins present in dairy products, meat + green vegetables)

27
Q

blood consists of:

A

-plasma (~55% total blood vol.)
-white blood cells & platelets (<1% total blood vol.)
-red blood cells (~45% total blood vol.)

28
Q

haematocrit

A

-white blood cells
-platelets
-red blood cells

29
Q

blood functions

A

-respiration
-transport
-protection
-repair
-thermoregulation

30
Q

respiration

A

-supply of O2 to tissue and cells
-removal of CO2 from tissues and cells

31
Q

transport

A

-nutrients to tissues and cells
-waste products from cells to kidney and liver
-messages such as hormones around the body

32
Q

protection

A

from infection (immune system)

33
Q

repair

A

of tissue damage

34
Q

thermoregulation (extreme heat)

A

-circulation diverts blood to surface to cool the body
-e.g. sweating

35
Q

thermoregulation (extreme cold)

A

-circulation diverts blood to deep/core to maintain body heat
-e.g. hair and shivering

36
Q

haematopoiesis - the formation of blood

A

occurs in bone marrow
-RED marrow in flat bones produces most blood cells
-YELLOW marrow in long bones produces some WBCs

37
Q

megakaryopoiesis/thrombopoiesis

A

production of platelets (from megakaryoblasts)

38
Q

erythropoiesis

A

production of RBCs

39
Q

granulopoiesis

A

production of granulocytes

40
Q

monocytopoiesis

A

production of monocytes

41
Q

lymphopoiesis

A

production of lymphocytes

42
Q

haemopoietic growth factors

A

-produced by stromal cells in bone marrow
-exceptions:
=erythropoietin in kidney
=thrombopoietin in liver

43
Q

destruction of blood cells

A

-spleen is the largest ‘filter’ of blood in the body (removes 4mil old blood cells every second)
-removes old or damaged blood cells (engulfed by phagocytes)

44
Q

blood smear

A

-RBCS: round with pale centres (due to biconcave shape)
-WBCs: a little bigger
-platelets: much smaller

45
Q

haemoglobin

A

-responsible for red appearance of RBCs
-approx. 250mil Hb molecules per RBC
-4 polypeptide chains each w/ haem (cofactor)
-haem has an Fe atom at its centre, each Fe atom binds 1 molecule of O2
-co-operativity in O2 binding+release
-binds to O2, CO2 and NO (+ CO) and transports these molecules around the body

46
Q

the pulmonary circulation

A

-pulmonary system = blood vessels surrounding the lungs
-pulmonary artery brings blood from heart to the lungs
-pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood back to heart to be pumped around the body
-capillary bed surrounds the alveoli

47
Q

white blood cells (leukocytes)

A

-lymphocyte
-neutrophil
-basophil
-eosinophil
-monocyte

48
Q

neutrophil

A

-approx. twice size of RBCs
-multi-lobed nucleus
-neutral-staining granules (hence the name)
- 2.5-7.5 x10^9 per litre of blood
-life span: 6 hours to a few days

49
Q

function of neutrophil

A

-vital role in protection from bacterial infections
-phagocytosis of bacteria

50
Q

eosinophil

A

-approx. same size as neutrophil
-bi-lobed nucleus
-large pink-staining granules (granules stain w/ eosin hence name)
- 0.04-0.44 x10^9 per litre of blood
-lifespan: 8-12 days

51
Q

function of eosinophil

A

-immune protection
-phagocytosis of antibody-coated pathogens
-attacks parasites
-allergic responses

52
Q

basophils

A

-slightly smaller than neutrophil
-bi-lobed nucleus
-large purple-staining granules (stains w/ methylene blue)
- 0.01-0.1 x10^9 per litre of blood
-lifespan: few hours to a few days

53
Q

function of basophil

A

-release of histamine during inflammation
-are NOT phagocytes

54
Q

monocytes (blood) / macrophages (tissue)

A

-larger than neutrophil
-large kidney-shaped nucleus
- 0.2-0.8 x10^9 per litre of blood
-lifespan: many months

55
Q

function of monocytes/macrophages

A

-vital role in protection from infections
-ingest bacteria, dead cells and cellular debris
-PHAGOCYTOSIS

56
Q

lymphocytes

A

-slightly smaller than neutrophil
-large and relatively round nucleus that fills the cytoplasm
- 1.5-3.5 x10^9 per litre of blood
-lifespan: can persist for many years
-divided into two types of cell:
=T cell
=B cell

57
Q

function of lymphocytes

A

-central role in immune system (protecting from infections, esp. viral infections)
-some lymphocytes attack pathogens directly (T-cells)
-some lymphocytes produce antibodies (B-cells)

58
Q

natural killer (NK) cells

A

-look similar to lymphocytes (same family)
-large round nucleus
-purple-staining granules
-secrete cytokines
-very rare
-lifespan: 1-2 weeks

59
Q

function of natural killer (NK) cells

A

-immunological surveillance
-kill virus infected cells and some tumour cells non-specifically (part of innate immunity)

60
Q

platelets

A

-small anucleate (no nucleus) fragments of large precursor cells called megakaryocytes
- 2-4µm diameter
-appear in blood films as dark-staining granules
- 150-400 x10^9 per litre of blood
-lifespan: 5-10 days

61
Q

function of platelets

A

-blood clotting
-prevention of blood loss (haemostasis)

62
Q

resting platelet

A

-smooth, discoid shape

63
Q

activated platelet

A

-have projections of membrane called pseudopodia
=filopodia: slender projections, help establish platelet-platelet contact
=lamellipodia: large flat spreading projections, help platelet coverag
-coagulation cascade produces fibrin to bind blood cells together more strongly

anatomy & physiology (21 decks)

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