The Emergence of Culture

Question 1

Describe primate and cetacean ontogeny.

Answer 1

primates and cetaceans characterized by prolonged immaturity and long life

Question 2

What does primate cetacean ontogeny indicate?

Answer 2

prolonged dependence on learning; a lot to learn to become competent (complex!) adults
-learn by observing and participating in shared practices

Question 3

Apes sexually mature at ~____ years

Answer 3

12

Question 4

Tigers sexually mature at only ~____ years

Answer 4

3

Question 5

Groups have __________ and different ______ at different stages

Answer 5

variety of age-class models, rules of behavior

Question 6

culture is _____ _______

Answer 6

socially transmitted

Question 7

Which animals have been shown to have menopause?

Answer 7

• few cetaceans (pilot whales, orcas)
• humans
• elephants

Question 8

What is the significance of some animals have menopause? Why is it not expected?

Answer 8

• menopause indicates that long-lived matrons have knowledge, customs; grandmas have critical role in society
• unexpected because animals living longer than their reproductive time

Question 9

How are orcas an example of changing traditions with matriarchal death?

Answer 9

old ladies in NW straights die, Orca pod finally takes more reasonable route

Question 10

Rules change through _______

Answer 10

development

i.e. sex, how adults behave, how children behave, etc

Question 11

When is a practice cultural?

Answer 11

when it varies within population of same species

Question 12

Evidence for cultural traditions best if population differences cannot what?

Answer 12

be attributed to ecological differences alone

e. g Nuts and stones available in 2 chimp habitats, but only one population uses stones to crack nuts
- otherwise may more likely be individual trial and error learning (vs. socially mediated transmission)

Question 13

Why is evidence for cultural traditions in animals controversial?

Answer 13

some models require “human specific” cognition (e.g. intentional imitation, teaching)–???
-doesn’t compare to our level

Question 14

How are cebus an example of cultural traditions? (in relation to hunting)

Answer 14

cooperative hunting seen in some groups of Cebus, never in others (rare)

Question 15

How are Japanese Macaques an example of cultural traditions?

Answer 15

Imo washed seweet potatoes, float seeds from sand

-spread laterlaly to her friends, then to their mothers, then to others, except oldest adult males

Question 16

How are chimps an example of cultural traditions? (in reference to nut cracking)

Answer 16

Tai forest use stones
Gombe use logs
Mahale don’t

Question 17

How are chimps an example of cultural traditions? (in reference to hunting)

Answer 17

In tai have specific roles; some are drivers, some are catchers, etc. due in base to bushy forest

kibale loosely organized

Gombe don’t

Question 18

How are chimps an example of cultural traditions? (in reference to termite fishing)

Answer 18

in Bossou termite fish

in Gombe do it different

in Mahale hunt fish although termites available

Question 19

How are cebus an example of cultural traditions? (in relation to trust building games)

Answer 19

finger in eye, suck fur, etc

tradition lives on although previous cebus’ died

Question 20

What is considered basic social repertoire?

Answer 20

cultural-largely learned through observation/coparticipation

Question 21

What are examples of basic social repertoire?

Answer 21

• how and when to groom, play with, support, oppose, when, etc
• includes arbitrary practices-like arm clasp grooming in certain populations
• Rhesus (typically despotic) raised with Stumptails acts egalitarian
• Harlow isolates do not know how to mate, parent, etc

Question 22

Describe evidence for cultural transmission in cetaceans in relation to feed strategies.

Answer 22

• practiced differently by same species in different areas (e.g. sponges, crater fishing, etc.)
• (Mann et all 2009) shows Shark Bay sponging, practiced by a few, passed to next generation

Question 23

Describe differents in social organization in cetaceans.

Answer 23

-same species can show differences in different regions (2 (Florida) v. 3 (Austrailian) coalition partners)

Question 24

Describe how orcas exhibit occasional distinctive behaviors. (“arbitrary weirdness”)

Answer 24

• orca “fads” (carry fish bits), shore lived (e.g. 2 ays) practiced by large subset of animals
• orca greeting ceremony by well established pods meeting after a long time (neighboring groups line up to head, silent til all in line, then sudden noisy interaction)

Question 25

Explain the meaning of the phrase “monkey see, monkey do.”

Answer 25

Primates, especially youngsters, have strong tendency to observe, and do generally what others are doing

Question 26

Explain synchrony and imitation in primates.

Answer 26

doing with mom, learn from synchornous activity, experiments suggest better at “emulating” observed outcome than imitating particulars of how

Question 27

Give examples of experiments on primates involving synchrony and imitation.

Answer 27

• w/ “artificial fruit” (puzzle box), NHPs more likely to mimic outcome vs. Human mimic means
• in other “Do as I do” experiments, chimps were able to mimic some novel actions

Question 28

Give examples of how primates around humans perform routine activities.

Answer 28

Rehabilitant Orangutans make fires, do laundry, launch boats, etc.

Question 29

Give examples of how cetaceans exhibit synchrony and imitation.

Answer 29

Captive Orca tank mates retained some calls from wild pods, i nfant learned some, all devel’d some new
-trained animals sometimes imitate “bridge” whistle to reward selves; Occasionally other human or env. sound

Question 30

Which cetacean has the most diverse natural whistle repertoire?

Answer 30

Belugas; frequently mimic man made whistles

Question 31

What was the lab bottlenose Phoenix taught?

Answer 31

• computer-generated “language” spontaneously mimicked sounds
• trained to mimic other sounds on command, although not with long lasting success
• tended to match freq modulation (contour) best, did some temporal compression and expansion

Question 32

(True/False): All primates and cetaceans are enculturated.

Answer 32

True. Just to their own cultures.

Question 33

All humans are _____ _______

Answer 33

human enculturated

Question 34

In captivity, can see _______ and ______ motor imitation in cetaceans

Answer 34

spontaneous and trained

Question 35

Give examples of spontaneous cetacean motor imitation.

Answer 35

performing animals sometimes learn other’s behaviors without training
-imitate humans: scrape window w/tool, release milk like smoke, etc. , imitate otehr species: e.g. Flap flipper likes seal, swim upsidedown, attempt to mate, etc.

Question 36

Give examples of cetacean trained motor imitation.

Answer 36

• bottlenose can be taught a mimic cue, imitate behavior modeled by human or other dolphin
• best success w/juv; existing social relations may constrain (e.g. Sub mimic dom, but not reverse)
• can also be taught cue to “repeat” = mimic self

Question 37

What is pedagogy?

Answer 37

expert actively intervenes in learning process of novice

• corrects errors, demonstrates, slows/orients actions to novice’s perspective, suit to stage of learning, etc.
• some argue pedagogy requires ToM (Expert must model current/changing mental state of Novice)

Question 38

There is ______ ______ whether pedagogy occurs in nonhumans most accept that at least ______ does

Answer 38

much controversy; scaffolding

e.g. Chimp nut cracking observed for hundreds of hours, only 3(?) direct interventions in juv learning

Question 39

What is scaffolding?

Answer 39

expert provides opportunities for novice to learn, but does not direct/modify process

e.g. mother cat catches, wounds mouse, then sets it loose near kittens so they can chase

Question 40

Give examples of teaching (scaffolding?) in cetaceans.

Answer 40

(combination of co-action/imitation and scaffolding)

• e.g. spotted dolphin mother crater fishes,calf buzzes also, mother catch and release fish; moms chase prey longer and orient to it more freq in presence of calves than when forage w/out
• Orca expert pushes novice onto (& later off of) beach toward seals, and/or shares prey, some data support that such “apprenticeship” leads to earlier solitary success by young

Question 41

Give examples of scaffolding (teaching?) in primates.

Answer 41

1. orangutan mothers, paried with infant, provide thousands of examples of branch and food manipulation
2. chimp females are most frequent tool users, so young have much early exposure
   - includes termite fishing, using stripped branch of borrect length and flexibility
   - infants handle, chew, poke, sticks until develop successful technique
3. chimp nut-crackers share nuts w/infants, allow access to materials (hammer/anvil)
   - when infant gets older, stop sharing > motivates it to learn to crack own nuts

Question 42

Most NHP’s practice “______” but only human enculturated practice “_______”

Answer 42

Most NHP’s practice “Do as you do” but only human enculturated practice “Do as I do” (i.e. demonstrate)

e.g. sign language trained chimps will teach own offspring signs

Question 43

Describe the things that human enculturated NHPs can do.

Answer 43

• language trained
• perform more like humans on many cognitive tests
• diectics
• ToM
• Triadic Object Use,
• Pedagogy,
• Other complex cog (e.g. analogies, sums, etc.)

Question 44

(True/False) Enculturation by own species is key to life as a primate

Answer 44

TRUE

Question 45

Describe the social hierarchy of Rhesus monkeys.

Answer 45

strict hierarchy

like caste society LIKE INDIANS

Question 46

Describe the social hierarchy of stump tailed macaques.

Answer 46

egalitarian “less rigid society”

Question 47

What are the temperament difference between Rhesus monkeys and stump tailed macaques?

Answer 47

rhesus = anxiety 
stumptail = mellow