The Endocrine System

Question 1

What is an active form of Vitamin D that also raises blood calcium levels by increasing absorption of calcium from digestive tract?

Answer 1

Calcitriol

Question 2

Name some glands in the endocrine system.

Answer 2

• pineal gland
• hypothalamus
• pituitary gland
• parathyroid glands
• thyroid gland
• thymus
• adrenal glands
• pancreas
• kidneys
• testes
• ovaries

Question 3

What raises blood calcium levels by increasing bone resorption?

Answer 3

PTH (parathyroid hormone)

Question 4

What does parathyroid hormone (PTH) do?

Answer 4

increases blood calcium level

Question 5

What does calcitonin (CT) do, and where is it secreted from?

Answer 5

it has the potential to decrease blood calcium level; released from the thyroid gland

Question 6

Name the hormones responsible for muscle relaxation.

Answer 6

Relaxin and progesterone

Question 7

Exocrine gland

Answer 7

secrete substances into ducts that carry substances into cavities or to outer surfaces of the body

Question 8

What are (4) examples of exocrine glands?

Answer 8

• sudoriferous (sweat)
• sebaceous (oil)
• mucous
• digestive

Question 9

Endocrine glands

Answer 9

secrete hormones into extracellular space around their cell which is diffused into capillaries and transported by blood to target cells throughout the body

Question 10

What are (6) functions of the endocrine system?

Answer 10

• growth
• development
• reproduction
• metabolism
• homeostasis
• apoptosis

Question 11

What (2) types of hormones are synthesised from steroid hormones?

Answer 11

• sex
• adrenal cortex

Question 12

What (2) hormones are synthesised from amino acids?

Answer 12

• insulin
• oxytocin

Question 13

What is hormone secretion controlled by?

Answer 13

• neural stimulation
• chemical changes in blood
• release of other hormones

Question 14

What are some examples of hormones secreted anteriorly?

Answer 14

• Human Growth Hormone (hGH) or somatotrophin
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
• Prolactin (PRL) or Lactogenic Hormone
• Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
• Melanocyte stimulating Hormone (MSH)

Question 15

What are some examples of hormones secreted posteriorly?

Answer 15

• Oxytocin (OT)
• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) or vasopressin

Question 16

Hypothalamus

Answer 16

releases hormones (oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone/vasopressin) that controls the pituitary gland.

Question 17

Pituitary gland

Answer 17

attached to the hypothalamus by a stalk. Has anterior and posterior portion.

Question 18

Pineal gland

Answer 18

• located in the epithalamus of the brain
• secretes Melatonin

Question 19

Thyroid gland

Answer 19

• butterfly shaped found wrapped around trachea just below the larynx
• secretes Thyroxine (T4), Tri-iodothyronine (T3) and Calcitonin.

Question 20

Parathyroid glands

Answer 20

secretes Parathormone (PTH)

Question 21

Thymus gland

Answer 21

• located in the thorax behind sternum and between lungs
• secretes Thymic Hormones for T cells

Question 22

Pancreas

Answer 22

– 5 to 6 inches long found behind and slightly below the stomach
- has small patches called pancreatic islets of Langerhans
- both an endocrine and exocrine glands
- secretes Glucagon from alpha cells, Insulin from beta cells, somatostatin from delta cells

Question 23

Adrenal glands

Answer 23

• above the kidneys
• comprise of 2 significantly different parts (adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla).

Question 24

Adrenal cortex

Answer 24

Secretes:
- Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
- Glocucorticoids (mainly conrtisol)
- Sex hormones (mainly androgens and estrogens).

Question 25

Adrenal medulla

Answer 25

Secretes: - Epinephrine/ Adrenaline Norepinephrine/Noradrenaline

Question 26

Ovaries and testes

Answer 26

- Sex glands - Ovaries secrete Progesterone and Estrogens including estriol, estrone, estradiol - Testes secrete Testosterone

Question 27

What are 4 effects of long-term stress?

Answer 27

- HTN - Hyperglycemia - Wasting of muscles - Suppression of immune system

Question 28

What are 5 red flags that signal common pathologies of the endocrine system?

Answer 28

- Virilizations and hirsutism in women - Delayed puberty - Failure to thrive – lethargy, depression, weight loss, weakness - Severe headaches - Recurring headaches with diaphoresis, tachycardia and palpitations

Question 29

What are some common pathologies of the endocrine system?

Answer 29

- Depression - Lethargy - Muscle weakness - Weight changes - Changes in heat tolerance - Increased urination and thirst - Palpitations - Headache - Coarsening of features

Question 30

What are 2 common pathologies of the adrenal glands?

Answer 30

- Addison's disease - Cushing's syndrome

Question 31

What is a common pathology of the parathyroid glands?

Answer 31

Calcium deficiency

Question 32

What is a common pathology of the pineal gland

Answer 32

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

Question 33

What are 2 common pathologies of the pituitary gland?

Answer 33

- Acromegaly - Diabetes Insipidus

Question 34

What is a common pathology of the parathyroid gland?

Answer 34

Gigantism

Question 35

What are 5 common pathologies of the thyroid gland?

Answer 35

- Goiter - Grave’s disease - Hashimoto disease - Myxedema (hypothyroidism) - Thyrotoxicosis

Question 36

Diabetes mellitus

Answer 36

when the body can't produce enough of insulin, or the insulin it produces isn't effective.

Question 37

What is a pathology of the pancreatic islets?

Answer 37

Diabetes mellitus

Question 38

What are some symptoms of Diabetes mellitus?

Answer 38

- Increased thirst - Frequent urination esp. at night-time - Weight loss despite increased appetite - Fatigue - Nausea - Vomiting - Frequent infections - Blurred vision

Question 39

Type 1 diabetes (IDDM)

Answer 39

– is a hereditary lifelong condition where the body’s immune system attacks the cells that produce insulin. - most common in people under the age of 20.

Question 40

Type 2 diabetes (NIDDM)

Answer 40

- Insulin levels may be normal, but body cells do not react to it properly, causing alterations in the metabolism of food. - Pregnancy could cause higher blood glucose levels (gestational diabetes). - More common than T1 IDDM (over 90% of adults with diabetes have T2DM)

Question 41

What is the pathophysiology of Type 1 diabetes?

Answer 41

- Autoimmune disorder - Absence of insulin production - Treatment with insulin is essential

Question 42

What is the pathophysiology of Type 2 diabetes?

Answer 42

- Insulin resistance - Onset on average around 40 years of age

Question 43

Describe the pathophysiology of diabetes.

Answer 43

- Insulin (produced by the pancreas) controls the amount of sugar in the blood - When food is digested and enters your bloodstream, insulin moves glucose out of the blood and into cells, where it's broken down to produce energy - Diabetics are unable to break down glucose into energy (due to either a lack of insulin or not being able to produce it)

Question 44

What are some risks for type 2 diabetes?

Answer 44

- Overweight or obesity - Unhealthy diet - Family history or type 2 diabetes - Asian, Black African or African Caribbean origin - Prolonged medications like steroids - High blood pressure - Gestational diabetes

Question 45

Diabetes can cause...

Answer 45

- Damage to micro-vessels - Peripheral neuropathy, no sensation - Ulcers develop due to trauma, infection often ensues - Arterial blood supply is reduced - Ulcer becomes chronic with bouts of acute infection leading to loss of digits/foot/limb

Question 46

What are the 6 stages of the diabetic foot?

Answer 46

Stage 1 - Normal Stage 2 - High Risk Stage 3 - Ulcerated Stage 4 - Cellulitic Stage 5 - Necrotic Stage 6 - Major Amputation

Question 47

What can diabetic foot disease lead to?

Answer 47

- Chronic wounds - Critical limb ischaemia - Acute on chronic limb ischaemia - Loss of structural integrity - Necrosis