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A&P 2 > Unit 10 > Flashcards

Unit 10 Flashcards

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1
Q

Nonspecific (Innate) Defense System

A
  • FIRST line of defense- skin & mucous membranes prevent microbe entry
  • SECOND line of defense- antimicrobial proteins, phagocytic cells, etc.
  • Inhibit spread of ALL invaders
  • Rapid response time
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2
Q

Innate Defense (Surface Barriers)

A

-Skin & Mucous Membrane

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3
Q

Innate Defense (Internal Defenses)

A
  • Phagocytes
  • Fever
  • NK Cells
  • Antimicrobial Proteins
  • Inflammation
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4
Q

Surface Barriers

A

Keratin (skin) & mucous membranes

  • Physical Barrier
  • Resistant to: acids & bases, bacterial enzymes & bacterial toxins
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5
Q

Epithelial Chemical Barriers

A

Epithelial membranes secrete chemicals

  • Skin acidity (pH 3-5): ↓bacterial growth
  • Sebum & cerumen: toxic to bacteria
  • Stomach (pH = 2.0): HCl
  • Protein digesting enzymes
  • Lysozyme: Saliva & lacrimal fluid
  • Mucus: traps microorganisms & dirt
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6
Q

Respiratory Tract

A 
Mucus-coated nasal hairs (vibrissae): 
-Trap dirt 
-Trap microbes
-Trap pollen
-Trap mold spores
Upper respiratory tract:
-Cilia move contaminants trapped in mucus away from the lungs
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7
Q

Nonspecific Cells & Chemicals

A
  • Phagocytes
  • Natural killer (NK) cells
  • Antimicrobial proteins: blood & tissue fluid
  • Inflammatory response activates macrophages, WBCs, & chemicals
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8
Q

Phagoctyes

A 
Macrophages:
--Free macrophages 
      Move throughout the body
-Fixed macrophages
      Kupffer cells (liver)  
      Microglia (brain)
Neutrophils: 
-Phagocytic for bacteria
Monocytes: 
-Phagocytic for bacteria
-Monocytes → macrophages
Eosinophils: 
-Phagocytic for parasitic worms
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9
Q

Phagocytosis Steps

A
  • Microbe adheres to phagocyte
  • Phagocyte pseudopods engulf microbe (antigen) into a phagosome (sac)
  • Phagosomes fuse w/ a lysosome to form a phagolysosome
  • Microbe inside phagolysosome is digested by enzymes
  • Nondigestible material is removed by exocytosis
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10
Q

Phagocytosis

A

SLIDE 12, review the picture

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11
Q

Natural Killer (NK) Cells

A
  • Large lymphocytes
  • React nonspecifically
  • Kill cancer cells
  • Kill virus-infected cells
  • Kill their target cells by releasing:
    - Perforins
    - Cytolytic chemicals
    - Chemicals ↑inflammatory response
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12
Q

Inflammatory Response

A
  • Begins when body tissues are injured
    - Prevents the spread of damaging chemicals
    - Disposes of cell debris & pathogens
    - Sets the stage for repair
  • Signs of acute inflammation:
    - Redness, heat, swelling & pain
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13
Q

Inflammatory Chemicals

A
  • Released by injured tissues & WBCs into cell spaces:
    - Prostaglandins
    - Complement
    - Histamine
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14
Q

Vascular Permeability

A
  • Inflammatory chemicals cause:
    - ↑Capillary wall permeability
    - Vasodilation
  • Fluid containing plasma proteins & antibodies leaks into the tissue spaces
    - Causes edema
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15
Q

Vasoconstriction vs. Vasodilation

A
  • Vasoconstriction
    • Normal permeability & blood flow
  • Vasodilation
    • Increased blood flow and permeability of blood vessels with vasodilation
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16
Q

Edema

A
  • Accumulation of fluid in the tissue spaces:
    - Contributes to sensation of pain
    - Dilutes harmful substances
    - Brings in ↑oxygen & ↑nutrients (repair)
    - Allows entry of clotting proteins to wall-off the infection (prevents bacterial movement)
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17
Q

Phagocytic Mobilization Phases (know the definitions)

A
  • Leukocytosis – neutrophils released from bone marrow in response to chemicals released by injured cells
  • Margination – neutrophils cling to capillary walls at the injured area
  • Diapedesis – neutrophils squeeze through capillary walls
  • Chemotaxis – inflammatory chemicals attract neutrophils to the infection site & neutrophils begin phagocytosis
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18
Q

Antimicrobial Proteins

A
  • Interferon & complement:
    • Enhance nonspecific (innate) defenses
      • Attack microorganisms directly
      • Prevent microorganism reproduction
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19
Q

Interferon

A
  • Interferon synthesis is activated when a cell is invaded by a virus
  • Interferon molecules leave infected cell & enter nearby (un-invaded) cells
  • Interferon stimulates neighboring cells to activate their genes for antiviral protein production
  • Blocks viral reproduction
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20
Q

Interferon Action

A

SLIDE 24, know the picture

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21
Q

Interferon Family

A
  • All related immuno-proteins
  • WBCs also secrete interferon
  • Interferons can activate macrophages & NK cells
  • FDA-approved interferon (antiviral drug)
    - Used against hepatitis viruses & herpes virus
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22
Q

Complement

A
  • Proteins (C1-C9)
  • Circulate in blood as inactive proteins
  • ↑Inflammatory response
  • Kill bacteria
  • Body cells are immune to complement
  • ↑Effectiveness of both nonspecific & specific defenses
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23
Q

Complement Pathways

A
  • Complement activation:
    • Binding of antibodies to invading organisms (antigen)
    • Binding of complement to the antigen-antibody complex (complement fixation)
    • Activated in a sequence w/ each step catalyzing the next & forms →
      • Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
      • Causes cell lysis
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24
Q

C-Reactive Protein (CPR)

A
  • Produced (liver) during inflammation
  • CPR:
    - Targets damaged cells for disposal
    - Activates complement
    - Used to detect acute infections
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25
Fever
- ↑Body temperature in response to invading microorganisms - Body’s thermostat is reset upwards in response to pyrogens - Pyrogens: chemicals made by WBCs exposed to foreign substances
26
Fever Effects
- High fevers can denature enzymes - Moderate fevers cause: - Liver & spleen to store iron (needed by microorganisms) - ↑Metabolic rate → ↑tissue repair
27
Steroid Hormones
- Hydrocortisone, cortisone, cortisol - ↓Inflammation (anti-inflammatory) - Vasoconstrict: ↓blood flow, ↓edema, ↓redness - Used clinically to treat inflammatory diseases (rheumatoid arthritis, etc.) - Side effects: Cushing’s syndrome (↑visceral fat, moon-face, buffalo-hump, ↓memory storage/retrieval)
28
Specific (Adaptive) Defense Systems
- Third line of defense - Mounts attack against specific foreign substances - Slower to react than nonspecific (innate) system - Works with nonspecific (innate) system
29
Specific (Adaptive) Defense (Humoral Immunity)
-B Cells
30
Specific (Adaptive) Defense (Cellular Immunity)
-T Cells
31
Specific (Adaptive) Defense Immune System
- Recognize specific foreign substances (antigens) & has a memory - Neutralize or destroy foreign substances - ↑Inflammation & activate complement - Two (overlapping) parts: - Cellular (cell-mediated) immunity - Humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity
32
Antigens
-Activate immune system -Stimulate an immune system -Large & complex molecules not normally found in the body (non-self) Molecules found on cells membranes -Antigens associated with a foreign cell stimulate an immune response
33
Complex Antigens
- Properties: - Immunogensis: - ↑Lymphocyte production - ↑Antibody production - Reactivity – react w/ antibodies - Includes foreign: proteins, nucleic acids, lipids & carbohydrates
34
Incomplete Antigens
- Are not immunogenic - Are reactive w/ antibodies - Specific (adaptive) immune system may recognize them as foreign & mount an attack (allergic response) - Found in: - Poison ivy, animal dander, dyes, detergents, cosmetics
35
Antigenis Determinants
- Only certain parts of an antigen are immunogenic - Lymphocytes form antibodies against the antigen - Antibodies only bind to the antigenic determinants of an antigen - Naturally occurring antigens have many antigenic determinants
36
Self-Antigens
- Body cells have protein molecules (self-antigens) that are not antigenic to us but are antigenic to other humans - MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex) proteins mark a body cell as self
37
MHC Proteins
- Unique to an individual - Each MHC molecule displays a self-antigen - In infected cells, MHC proteins bind to fragments of non-self antigens - MHC proteins play a role in mobilizing the immune system
38
Specific (Adaptive) Immune System
- Lymphocytes: - T lymphocytes – do not make antibodies (control cellular immunity) - B lymphocytes – make antibodies (control humoral immunity) - Antigen-presenting cells (APCs): - Do not respond to specific antigens - Play auxiliary roles in immunity
39
Lymphocyte Maturation
- Immature lymphocytes released from bone marrow are all identical - Whether a lymphocyte becomes a B cell or a T cell depends on where in the body it matures (immunocompetent) - B cells mature in Bone Marrow - T cells mature in the Thymus
40
Immunocompetent B or T cells
- Have receptors that respond to specific antigens - Become immunocompetent before they encounter antigens - Are exported to lymphoid tissue where they encounter antigens - Mature into antigen-activated cells upon binding w/ their recognized antigen
41
Lymphocyte Maturation
SLIDE 50, know the picture.
42
Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs)
- Functions: - Engulf foreign matter - Present fragments of antigens on their surfaces to be recognized by T cells - APCs: macrophages
43
Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs) Macrophages
- Macrophage engulfs foreign cells - Attaches foreign antigens (yellow) onto their MHC proteins (green) - APC presents antigens to Helper T-cells which activate the Helper T-cells
44
Activated Helper T-Cells
Release Chemicals: - Stimulate macrophages to become activated macrophages - Activated macrophages secrete bactericidal chemicals
45
Helper T-Cell Function
SLIDE 56, be able to draw and label picture. *ESSAY QUESTION*
46
Cytokines Chemicals (three)
- Chemicals used in cellular immunity: - Interleukin I - Interleukin II - Perforin
47
Cytokines (Interleukin I)
- Produced by macrophages (APC cells) | - Stimulates (activates) Helper T-cells
48
Cytokines (Interleukin II)
- Produced by Helper T-cells - Stimulates (activates) Cytotoxic T-cells - Stimulates (activates) B-cells
49
Cytokines (Perforin)
- Produced by cytotoxic T cells | - Causes lysis (punches holes) in target cells membranes
50
Cytotoxic T-Cells (Killer T-Cells)
- Stimulated by Helper T-Cells - Destroy body cells infected with viruses - Destroy cancer cells
51
Memory Cells
- T-Cells & B-Cells "remember" an antigen | - React to a second invasion of an antigen more rapidly
52
Regulatory Cells
-Stop T-Cell & B-Cell activity after an infection has been conquered
53
Specific (Adaptive) Immunity: Summary
- Two-part defensive system - Uses B-lymphocytes, T-lymphocytes & APCs to identify & destroy nonself substances - Recognizes foreign substances (antigens) - Cells communicate w/ one another so entire immune system mounts a response specific to those antigens
54
Humoral Immunity Response
- Antigen challenge – 1st encounter between antigens & naive immunocompetent cells - 1st encounter happens in lymphoid organs - If the lymphocyte is a B-cell: - Antigen stimulates a humoral immune response - Antibodies are made against the antigen by the B-cell
55
Clonal Selection
- B-cells form clones with the same antigens specific receptors - Immuocompetent B-cells activate when antigens bind to their receptors
56
B Cell: Summary
- B-Lymphocytes react directly w/ antigens - Require stimulation from Helper T-Cells - Offspring become Plasma Cells & Memory B-Cells - Humoral Immunity
57
Primary & Secondary Responses
SLIDE 70, know the picture.
58
B Cells Clones
- Most B-cell clones become antibody-secreting plasma cells - Plasma cells make 2000 antibodies/sec - Secreted antibodies bind to antigens & mark antigens for destruction - Some B-cell clones become memory cells - Memory cells mount an immediate response if future exposures to same antigen occurs
59
Lymphocyte Summary
SLIDE 72.
60
Primary Immune Response
- Primary immune response: - 1st exposure to a specific antigen - Delay period: 3-6 days after antigen challenge - Peak levels of antibody are reached in 10 days & then decline
61
Secondary Immune Response
- Secondary immune response: re-exposure to same antigen - Memory cells respond quickly - Delay period: hours after antigen challenge - Antibody levels peak in 2-3 days at higher levels than primary response - Antibody levels remain high for weeks to months
62
Active Humoral Immunity
- B cells encounter antigens & produce antibodies against the antigens - Natural Active – response to a bacterial or viral infection - Artificial Active – response to a vaccine of dead or attenuated pathogens - Vaccines – spare us the symptoms of a disease - Weakened antigens provide antigenic determinants & are immunogenic
63
Passive Humoral Immunity
- Differs from active immunity in antibody source & level of protection - B cells are not challenged by antigens - Immunological memory does not occur - Ends when antibodies degrade - Natural Passive – mother to fetus via placenta - Artificial Passive – injection of antibodies (gamma globulin)
64
Acquired Immunity- Naturally Acquired
- Active - Infection; contact with pathogen - Passive - Antibodies pass from mother to fetus via placenta; or to infant in her milk
65
Acquired Immunity- Artificially Acquired
- Active - Vaccine; dead or attenuated pathogens - Passive - Injection of immune serum (gamma globulin)
66
Antibodies
- Also called immunoglobulins - Made by activated B cells & plasma cells in response to an antigen - Capable of binding only w/ that antigen - Five classes of antibodies: IgM, IgA, IgD, IgG, IgE (MADGE)
67
Antibody Classes
- IgM: made by plasma cells - IgA: prevents pathogen attachment to cell surface; in lactiferous secretions (passive immunity) - IgD: activates B-cells - IgG: most abundant/diverse antibody; crosses placenta (passive immunity) - IgE: activate mast cells & basophils to release histamine
68
Basic Antibody Structure
- Antibodies: 4 protein chains - 2 identical Heavy (H) chains - 2 identical Light (L) chains - Each chain has a constant (C) region at one end - Each chain has a variable (V) region at the other end - Variable regions form antigen-binding site
69
Antibody Targets
- Antibodies don’t destroy an antigen (they inactivate it or tag it for destruction) - Plasma cells can make a billion different antibody types - Antibody mechanisms: complement fixation/activation, neutralization, agglutination, precipitation
70
Complement Fixation & Activation
- Complement fixation: - Used against cell antigens - Antibodies attach to cell (promote cell lysis) - Complement activation: - ↑Inflammation - ↑Phagocytosis
71
Neutralization
- Neutralization: - Antibodies block active sites on viruses or bacteria - Prevents antigens from binding to body cells
72
Agglutination & Precipitation
- Agglutination: antigen-antibody complexes cause clumping | - Precipitation: small soluble molecules → large insoluble complexes
73
Antibody Action
SLIDE 89.
74
Immunodeficiencies
- Function of immune system is abnormal - Acquired immunodeficiency - Congenital immunodeficiency
75
Acquired Immunodeficiencies
- Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) - Characteristics: - Weight loss - Swollen lymph nodes - Opportunistic infections occur (pneumonia)
76
AIDS
- Caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmitted via body fluids - HIV enters the body through blood transfusions, contaminated needles, unprotected sex - Dates back to 1880’s & is descended from a chimpanzee virus in Africa – Nature - HIV: Destroys helper T cells (↓Cell-mediated immunity) - HIV multiplies in lymph nodes-no symptoms - Symptoms: months to years…or never! - HIV’s surface protein attaches to the CD4 receptor on the helper T cell - HIV enters the cell - HIV reverse transcriptase produces DNA from viral RNA - DNA directs the cell to make new viruses - Viruses reproduce & infect other cells - HIV reverse transcriptase is not accurate & produces frequent errors (mutations) - High mutation rate causes drug resistance - Treatments: - Reverse transcriptase inhibitors (AZT) - Drugs are currently being developed to block HIV’s entry into T-cells (CD4 receptor)
77
Autoimmune Diseases
- Immune system cannot distinguish self from nonself - Body produces autoantibodies that destroy body tissues - Examples: - Multiple Sclerosis, Myasthenia Gravis, Graves’ disease, Lupus, Type I diabetes mellitus, rheumatoid arthritis, glomerulonephritis (Bright’s disease
78
Autoimmune Disease Mechanisms
- New self-antigens appear: - 1) Gene mutations generate new self-antigens - 2) Infectious damage changes original self-antigens - If determinants on foreign antigens resemble self-antigens: - Antibodies made against foreign antigens cross-react w/ self-antigens
79
Practical Aspects
- Immune system is impaired by: - Stress - Depression - ↓Protein diets - Sleep deprivation - With ↑age…the immune system becomes less efficient

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