unit 2 exam Flashcards
(264 cards)
1
Q
defining deviance- what is behaviour that is admired and good?
A
being heroic such as risking your life to save someone else
2
Q
defining deviance- what is behaviour that is unusual and odd?
A
hoarding huge quantities of things, talking to the trees in the park etc
3
Q
defining deviance- what is behaviour that is unusual and bad?
A
law breaking behaviour such as physically attacking someone unprovoked
4
Q
defining criminal behaviour- what is the legal definition of crime?
A
any action forbidden by criminal law, involving actus reus ans men’s rea
5
Q
what is actus reus?
A
guilty physical act
6
Q
what is mens rea?
A
guilty mind (intent)
7
Q
defining criminal behaviour- what is the social definition of crime?
A
considering differing views of what makes certain behaviour criminal, wether people think laws should have been made or not
8
Q
formal sanctions against criminals- custodial sentences
A
court imposed imprisonment in a young offenders institution
9
Q
formal sanctions against criminals-community sentences
A
a sentence served in the community rather than in jail. court imposed work, fines, courses, probation orders, restrictions, drug treatment or testing.
10
Q
formal sanctions against criminals-police sanctions
A
cautions and penalty notices for disorder- no court appearance
11
Q
formal sanctions against criminals- other convictions
A
a criminal record, job exclusion, travel restrictions, restriction on adoption, jury service etc
12
Q
acts that are criminal- summary offences
A
less serious, speeding etc. tried by magistrates
13
Q
acts that are criminal- indictable offences
A
more serious eg rape or murderer. tried in crown court with jury, more severe sentences.
14
Q
acts that are criminal- violence against the person
A
murderer, manslaughter, assault
15
Q
acts that are criminal- sexual offences
A
rape, sex trafficking, grooming
16
Q
acts that are criminal- property crime
A
burglary, theft, robbery
17
Q
acts that are criminal- fraud and forgery
A
fraud by company’s, benifits cheating, tax evasion
18
Q
acts that are criminal- criminal damage
A
arson, vandalism, graffiti
19
Q
acts that are criminal- drug offences
A
drug trafficking, supplying, possession
20
Q
acts that are criminal- public offences
A
rioting, violent disorder
21
Q
what is a norm?
A
specific rules or socially accepted standards that govern behaviour in particular situations
22
Q
what is a value?
A
general principles or guidelines for how we should act
23
Q
what is a moral code?
A
a set of basic rules, values ans principles held by an individual, group, organisation or society
24
Q
what is a formal sanction?
A
punishment for breaking written rule or laws
25
what is an informal sanction?
disapproval shown for breaking unwritten rules
26
what is a positive sanction?
rewards for behaviour that society approves
27
what is social control?
ways which society seeks to control behaviour and ensure people conform the the norms
28
what is a conditional discharge?
an offender may avid prison if they commit no offences in a given time period
29
what is an absolute discharge?
defendant is guilty but the court decides punishment is not appropriate
30
what is ViSOR
violent and sex offenders register
31
what is polygamy?
having ore than one husband or wife at the same time
32
where is polygamy legal?
india, malaysia, philippines, singapore, sri Lanka
33
what is the religious reason for polygamy?
the Qu’ran permits muslim men to take up to 4 wives
34
what is the traditional reason for polygamy?
traditionally been practiced in african society’s
35
where is cannabis legal?
canada, some us states, portugal (decriminalised)
36
why do cannabis laws vary?
norms and values, emphasis on personal freedoms
37
where is homosexuality legal?
uk, europe, north and south america
38
why is homosexuality illegal in some country’s?
many religions condemn it, some country have a high level of support, male homosexuality banned in more country’s- sexism
39
what is adultery?
a sexual act between two people, one or both whom are married to someone else
40
where is adultery a crime?
many muslim countries, some christian and african countries, 21 US states
41
where is adultery legal?
most countries such as uk and india
42
why is adultery illegal in some places?
religion, women’s positions- many countries here omen have subordinate positions forbid adultery
43
what is polygyny?
hen a man has more than one wife at a time
44
what is polyandry?
when a woman has more than one wife at a time
45
what is bigamy?
being married to more than one person at a time
46
is bigamy illegal in the uk?
yes, punishable up to 7 years, prison, fine or both
47
what is social construction?
something that has been made or defined by society rather than occurring naturally
48
when was homosexuality made a crime?
1885
49
when was homosexuality legalised?
in 1967 at 21 in england and wales, 18 in 1944 and 16 in 2000
50
why did the homosexuality law change?
campaigning
51
examples of homosexuality campaigns
stonewall, campaign for homosexual equality
52
what is the name of the politician that supported homosexuality?
roy jenkins
53
what was the human rights reason the homosexuality law changed?
belief that the state has no right to control citizens private life’s
54
when did possession of drugs become a civil offence is quantity is less than a 10 day supply?
2001
55
what are the reasons for change in drug laws?
revolution, health, scale, economy
56
how much did they believe the new law would reduce drug related costs by?
18%
57
what is capital punishment?
death by hanging
58
what is corporal punishment?
flogging, birching, branding and being put on the stocks
59
how has physical punishment changed over time?
death penalty offences reduced until it remained for just treason and murder,,the capital punishment was abolished, later followed by corporal punishment
60
when was capital punishment abolished?
1965
61
when was corporal punishment abolished?
1967
62
why did physical punishment evolve over time?
human rights- right to life, miscarriages of justice, not a deterrent, decline in violence
63
why has there been a supposed decline in violence?
physical punishment has been replaced by self control
64
why has gun laws changed over time?
due t0. hungerford shooting and dunblane shooting
65
who was the GCN (gun control network) campaign set up by?
lawyers, academics, parents of victims
66
who started the snowdrop campaign?
parents of dunblane victims and their friends
67
what did the snowdrop campaign do to try and change the law?
started a petition and collected 750000 signatures calling for a change in law
68
when was the child protection act get put in place?
2004
69
what is automatism?
if the defendant can prove the act was involuntary, they can plead to automatism
70
typifications: chambliss
police enforce law more leniently against middle class ‘saints’ and more harshly to working class ‘roughnecks’
71
typifications: cicourel
police more likely to regard working class with more suspicion resulting in more arrests for this group
72
typifications: piliavin and briar
situational factors include class, age, ethnicity, attitude towards the officer, time and place
73
what is the age of criminal responsibility in england and wales?
10
74
what age do the less formal children’s courts go up to?
17 in england and wales
75
can the courts send children to prison?
no, but they send them to detention centres or impose training orders to e carried out in a secure centre
76
when was the homicide act introduced?
1957
77
what did the homicide act introduce?
three special defences for murder where the defendant can plead not guilty despite having done it
78
what is the three murder defenses for not guilty when having done it?
diminished responsibility, loss of control, automatism
79
what is diminished responsibility?
mental condition substantially reduces ability to understand what they were doing or form rational judgement- reduces conviction to manslaughter
80
what is loss of control?
a partial defense that may reduce the conviction to manslaughter
81
what is moral panic?
fear spread amount many people that something threatens the well being of society
82
what is typifications?
ideas (usually held by the police) about what a typical criminal is like
83
what is homicide?
the act of murder, killing someone with intent
84
what is manslaughter?
killing someone without the intent required for a charge of murder
85
what is differential enforcement
when the law is not applied to everyone equally
86
what types of biological theories are there?
physiological, genetic, injury’s and diseases, biochemical
87
two theories for physiological?
lombroso and sheldon
88
what is lombroso key idea?
criminals are physically different from non-criminals
89
hat was lombroso study?
measuring criminals heads and faces
90
what is the name of lombroso study?
born criminals
91
what was lombroso findings?
criminals are more likely to have large jaws, long arms and a flat nose
92
three strengths of lombroso?
first to study crime scientifically, shows importance of clinical studies for criminals, helps to focus on prevention not punishment
93
three limitations of lombroso?
no further evidence, no control group, racist
94
what was sheldon’s case study called?
somatotype theory
95
what was sheldon’s key idea?
the body type is related to criminality
96
what was sheldon’s study?
looked and body types and compared them too the likelihood of criminality
97
what body type did sheldon find to be mst likely criminal?
mesomorphs
98
what reason did sheldon give for mesomorphs being criminals?
more attracted to risk taking, physique and assertiveness are important assets in crime
99
two strengths of sheldon?
replicable, factual
100
four limitations of sheldon?
build may be a result of criminality, labelling, may be down to social class, more likely to be linked to biology and environment
101
102
what is atavism?
the idea that criminals are throwbacks to a more primitive stage in revolution
103
what is an endomorph?
rounded, soft bodied, lacking muscle. socialble, outgoing, relaxed.
104
what is an ectomorph?
thin, fragile, inward looking, lacking fat and muscle, flat chested, narrowed hips and shoulders, thin face. self-conscious, emotionally restrained, thoughtful
105
what is a mesomorph?
muscular, hard-bodied, little fat, strong limbs, broad shoulder, narrow waist. adventurous, sensation-seeking, assertive, domineering.
106
what are physiological theories?
biological theories that claim physical features of criminals differ from non criminals.
107
examples of genetic theories
twin and adoption studies, XYY study
108
what is the key idea of twin studies?
if crime is genetic, identical twins should have identical criminality
109
what is the concordance rate of Mz twins and Dz twins?
52 and 22
110
who looked at twin study concordance rates?
Christiansen
111
what is the key ideas of adoption studies?
adoptees share environment of adoptive parents/ genes of biological parents. if geneticist, criminality will match biological parents more
112
what was the concordance rate of biological parents vs adopted parents?
20, 14.7
113
who looked at concordance rates in adoption studies?
Mednick
114
3 strengths of twin and adoption studies?
support to genetic explanations, adoption studies overcome problem of isolating genes in environment, research of adoption studies is logical
115
limitations of twin and adoption studies
if criminality was only genetic, concordance rate would be 100% for mz twins, impossible to isolate genetic effects fully from environmental ones, adopted children often played with families similar to their birth families
116
what was the key idea of jacob’s XYY study?
XYYY syndrome in males makes then genetically predisposed to criminality
117
what was Jacob et als study?
compared rate of XYY in imprisoned criminals with general population
118
what were jacob’s finding?
higher than average proportion of inmates had XYY
119
features of XYY?
tall, well—built, low intelligence, high aggression, violent
120
2 strengths of jacob’s XYY study
association of XYY and violent prisoners, price and watmore- links to XYY and property crime
121
4 weaknesses of jacob’s XYY study
implys causation, labelling, low intelligence of XYY may mean higher change of getting caught, too rare but overrepresented in the prison population
122
what are those carrying an extra Y chromosome known as?
supermales
123
key ideas of brain injuries
change personality, more common in prisoners
124
what is the case study for brain injuries?
phineas gage- metal rod through brain. survived but personality change
125
key idea for mental disorders
some brain diseases linked with criminal or anti-social behaviour
126
what mental disorders are liked with antisocial behaviour
dementia, brain tumours, huntingtons chorea
127
what do some studied show about psychopathies criminals and EEG readings?
some psychopathic criminals have abnormal EEG readings
128
what does EEG stand for?
electroencephalogram
129
strengths of brain injury’s and disorders
case studies, some correlation between eeg readings and psychopathy, prisoners are more likely to have brain injury’s then non prisoners
130
limitations of brain injury’s and disorders
rare, abnormal EEG readings not found in all psychopaths, prisoners head injury’s may be effect not cause- prisoners getting into fights
131
key idea of biochemical explanations
biochemical substances linked to criminality
132
biochemical- sex hormones- males
ellis and coontz- testosterone peaks at puberty to 20, some as criminality
133
biochemical-sex hormones- female
PMT, PND, lactation all used as defense in court- affected mood/ self control
134
biochemical-blood sugar
hypoglycaemia linked to aggression
135
substance abuse- biochemical
prescription and illegal drugs and alcohol are linked to crime, can lead to aggression
136
biochemical- other substances
lead, tartrazine linked to hyperactivity. vitamin b deficiency linked to erratic behaviour
137
2 strengths of biochemical explanations
recognised by courts, all known factors that affect mood/behaviour
138
3 limitations of biochemical explanation
biochemical explanations may need an environmental trigger too, some studies find testosterone isn’t linked to aggression, infanticide may be cased by isolation not hormones
139
who looks at psychodynamic theories?
freud and bowlby
140
what is the key idea of freud psychoanalysis theory?
early childhood experiences determine our personality and future criminality
141
what does freud believe the personality is made up of?
3 elements of the unconscious mind.
142
what are the three elements of the mind according to freud
ID, ego, superego
143
what is the ID?
pleasure principle. selfish and animalistic urges
144
what is the ego?
reality principle. balances superego and id
145
what is the superego?
morality principle. leads to guilt and anxiety
146
what happens when someone has a weak superego?
they experience less feelings of guilt and are more likely to act on the IDs urges
147
what happens when someone has a harsh superego?
they crave punishment to relive their feelings of guilt
148
what happens when someone has a deviant superego?
they have been socialised into a deviant moral code
149
what is attachment?
the relationship between the primary caregiver and the child
150
what is affectionless psychopathy?
inability to form meaningful relationships as a result of broken attachment before the age of 5
151
how does freuds idea of personality link to crime?
anti-social behaviour is caused by abnormal relationship with parents, causing conflicts between the ID, ego and superego to go unresolved which causes inbalanced superego
152
two strengths of freuds psychoanalysis
emphasises importance of early childhood experiences and familial relationships in understanding criminal behaviour, influenced some policies,
153
three weaknesses of freuds psychoanalysis
critics doubt the existence of of the unconscious mind, overemphasises childhood experiences influencing future criminal behaviour, unscientific and subjective, relays on accepting claims of psychoanalysis
154
what’s the key idea of bowlbys maternal deprivation theory?
there is a link between maternal deprivation and deviant/ anti-social behaviour
155
what does bowlby believe about attachment?
a child needs a close, continuous relationship with the primary caregiver from 0-5 to develop normally
156
what does bowlby believe about separation?
if attachment is broken even for a short time, it can lead to affectionless psychopathy and criminal behaviour
157
what was bowlbys key study?
44 juvenile thieves
158
what was bowlbys evidence in his 44 juvenile thieves study?
39% suffered from maternal deprivation before age 5 compared to 5% of the control non-delinquents
159
two strengths of bowlby
case study research, shows importance. of child-parent relationships in criminality
160
limitations of bowlby
restrospective studiies rely on memory, doesn’t explain why non deprived 61% were delinquent, no evidence for affectionless psychopathy in further studies, overestimates childhood on later behaviour,
161
who criticised bowlby for maternal deprivation not being linked to criminality?
sammons and putwain
162
who looked at the personality test?
Eysenck
163
what was the key idea of Eysenck?
criminality is result of highly neurotic and highly extroverted personality types
164
what are the personality dimensions?
extroversion/introversion (E) neuroticism/ emotional stability (N)
165
what did eysenck later add to the personality dimensions?
psychoticism (P)
166
how do extroverts link to crime?
their nervous system has a need for high stimulation so constantly seek excitement through rule breaking and impulsive behaviour
167
how dos neuroticism link to criminality?
they have high anxiety levels so are harder to condition into society’s norms as their anxiety prevents them from leaving from punishment
168
how does psychoticism link to crime?
tend to be solitary misfits who are more likely to be criminal and may have serious mental illnesses such as schizophrenia
169
two strengths of eysenck
describes how some measure able tendency’s may lead to criminality, studies suggest offenders have high E, P and N scores
170
171
limitations of eysenck
extroversion measures both impulsiveness and sociability, does not prove personality type causes criminality, convicted offenders may not be typical offenders, easy to lie on personality reports
172
173
personality traits of extraversion?
outgoing, sociable, excitement seeking, impulsive, aggressive
174
personality traits of introversion?
reserved, inward looking, serious, pessimistic, self controlled
175
personality traits of neurotics?
anxious, moody, depressed, over-reactors
176
personality traits of emotionally stable?
calm, even tempered, controlled, unworried
177
what is conditioning?
learning through experience to seek pleasure and avoid pain
178
what is genetic inheritance?
someone individuals are born it’s a nervous system that causes them to develop a criminal personality
179
what is psychoticism?
a personality traits that is cruel, insensitive, aggressive, lacks empathy
180
what is a correlation?
a relationship between two variables, does not imply causation
181
what study did sutherland looks at?
differential association
182
what is the key idea of differential association?
criminality is the result of imitation and learned attitude in groups that favour law breaking
183
what was sutherland study about?
group attitudes in the workplace- everyone is able to justify their crimes as very one else is doing it
184
strengths of sutherland
crime often runs in families, matthews- juvenile delinquents more likely to have friends that commit crime0 learned form peers groups
185
limitations of sutherland
not everyone exposed to crime commits criminal acts
186
what is the key idea of skinners operant learning theory?
if behaviour is result of a reward it will be repeated. if it results in an undesirable outcome it will not be repeated.
187
how does operant learning link to crime?
crime must have more rewards for criminals than punishments
188
strengths of operant learning
reward-repeated punishment-not. differential reinforcement theory suggests crime has more rewards for criminals than punishments
189
limitations of operant learning
skinner used animals- we largely differ from animals such as language skills, ignores mental processes, ignores free will of humans- deterministic
190
key idea of bandura SLT
much of behaviour is learned through imitation of others
191
evidence of SLT?
bobo doll study- children most likely to imitate violent models if they are rewarded
192
strengths of bandura
takes into account social nature of people, shows importance of role models
193
limitations of bandura
based on lab experiments- lacks validity, not all behaviour is easily imitated- lack skills, ignores free will deterministic
194
who looks at cognitive theories?
yochelson + samenow, kohlberg
195
what do yochelson + samenow look at?
criminal personality theory
196
what is the key idea of criminal personality theory?
criminals are prone to faulty thinking and this makes them more likely to commit crime
197
what study did yochelson and samenow do?
240 male offenders, most of whom had beeen committed to a psychiatric unit
198
how do thinking errors link to crime?
criminals show a range of biases and errors their thinking and descisions making which link to crime
199
examples of thinking errors in criminals?
lying, secretiveness, need for power and control, super-optimism, lack of trust, lack of empathy, uniqueness and a victim stance
200
strengths if criminal personality theory
successful treatments developed- CBT
201
limitations of criminal personality theory
no control group in study, sample was only males mostly in a psychiatric hospital, high sample attrition rate
202
key idea of kohlbergs moral development theory
ideas of right and wrong develop through a series of levels and stages form childhood to adulthood
203
what is moral development theory’s link to crime?
criminals are stuck at a less mature level of moral development and likely to only think of reward and punishment, not about how their behaviour will effect other people
204
what have cognitive theory’s led to the development of?
CBT
205
strengths of moral development theory
some studies support criminals having a less mature stage of moral development, thornton and tried- truer for planned crimes such as theft and robbery or impulsive crimes like violence
206
limitations of moral development theory
focus on moral thinking not moral behaviour- some criminals are able to think morally, but they can still act immorally
207
what is CBT used for?
to correct faulty thinking patterns
208
what is the attrition rate?
how many participants drop out of a study
209
what theory does durkheim look at?
functionalism
210
what is the key idea of durkheim functionalist theory?
crime is the inequitable result of inadequate socialisation (anomie)
211
what is anomie?
normlessness- society has multiple sets of norms and values that are conflicting
212
what four important functions does durkheim believe crime preforms?
boundary maintenance, social change, safety valve, warning light
213
functionalism - what is meant by boundary maintanace?
crime unites society’s members against wrongdoers, reinforcing boundary between right and wrong
214
functionalism- what is meant by social change?
for society to progress, individuals with new ideas must challenge existing norms and values. at first, this is deviance
215
functionalism- what is meant by safety valve?
a specific mechanism or institution is created to release or redirect social pressures or tensions, preventing more disruptive or harmful outcomes
216
functionalism- what is meant by warning light?
deviance indicates that society isn’t functioning properly so action can be taken to fix it.
217
strength of durkheim
first to recognise crime can have positive functions for society
218
limitations of durkheim
does not suggest what amount of crime is needed for society to function properly, crime isn’t functional for all- victims
219
key idea of morton’s strain theory
crime is a result of unequal access to society’s goal of wealth
220
what does merton believe about blocked opportunities?
not all have equal chance to achieve wealth which creates strain for woking class people who cannot access wealth legitimately
221
what are the four deviant adaptations for strain?
innovation, ritualism, retreating, rebellion
222
what is innovation?
accept the cultural goal but not the institutionalised means to achieve it
223
what is ritualism?
accepting the institutionalised means but not the cultural goal
224
what is retreatism?
rejeting the institutionalised means and the cultural goal
225
what is rebellion?
rejecting both goal and means, replacing them with new ones in order to change society
226
what is conformity?
accepting institutionalised means and the cultural goal
227
strengths of morton strain theory
shows how normal and deviant behaviour can arise from shared goals, explains why w/c crime is higher
228
limitations of merton’s strain theory
ignores crimes of wealthy, only sees deviance as an individual response, focus on utilitarian crime only
229
what is utilitarian crime
crimes committed for financial gain
230
who looks at subcultural theories?
cohen, coward and ohlin
231
what is the key idea of cohens status frustration?
crime is a group response to unequal access to society’s goal of wealth
232
what is status frustration?
working class boys end up at the bottom of schools official status hierarchy and feel frustrated and worthless
233
who came up it’s the idea of 3 subcultures?
cloward and ohlin
234
what are the three subcultures?
criminal, conflict, retreatist
235
what is the key idea of three subcultures?
different neighbourhoods give rise to different types of deviant subcultures
236
what is the criminal subculture?
arise in areas with longstanding criminal network, selecting youths for an ‘apprenticeship’- future of criminal career
237
what is the conflict subculture?
arise when the only criminal opportunities are with street gangs. violence is a release of frustration and a source of status is earned through winning territory from rival gangs
238
what is retreatist subcultures?
made up of dropouts who have failed both legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structures. often based on drug use
239
strengths of subcultural theories
show how subcultures preform a function for members by offering solutions, show how different types of neighbourhoods give rise to different illegitimate means and subcultures
240
limitations of subculture theories
ignores crime of wealthy, overprededicts w/c crime, assumes everyone starts with mainstream goals, actual subcultures are not clear cut, can be a mix of the types
241
what is interactionalism?
interactions based on meanings or labels. crime and criminals are social constructions
242
what is labelling?
no act itself is deviant or criminal, it only becomes so when others label it as such
243
what is differential enforcement?
where laws are more harshly informed on certain societal groups
244
who argues labelling is the cause of crime?
lemert
245
how does lemert argue crime is due to labelling?
distinguishing between primary and secondary deviance
246
what is primary deviance?
acts that have not been publicly labelled. offenders dont see themselves as criminal
247
what is secondary deviance?
results from labelling, people treat the offender solely based off the label which becomes their master status
248
what is a self fulfilling prophecy?
when an offender is labelled, society’s reaction of them pushed them further into deviance, living up to their label
249
what is the deviance amplification spiral?
an attempt to control deviance through a crackdown which leads to it increasing rather than decreasing. leads too greater attempt at control and therefor even more deviance
250
interactionism and crime stats
reject crime stats from police because they believe its based on how much the police do not how much crime there actually is.
251
what study did young look at in interactionism?
the hippies
252
what was youngs study on the hippies?
police attention and labelling led hippies to retreat into closed groups where drug use took over
253
who looked at interactionism and the mods and rockers?
cohen
254
what was the mods and rockers study used to explain?
cohen uses the mods and rockers to explain the amplification spiral
255
what did media exaggeration in the mods and rockers study cause?
growing public concern
256
what did moral entrepreneurs do in mods and rockers?
call for a crackdown leading to more arrests and more concerns
257
what was the negative label for the mods and rockers?
folk devil
258
strengths of interactionism and labelling
shows law is socially constructed, shifts focus on how police cause crime with labelling, shows how attempts in control can led to an increase in deviance
259
limitations of interactionism and labelling
deterministic, gives offenders a victim status, fails to explain primary deviance, doesn’t explain where power to supply labels comes from, fails to explain why only some groups are labelled
260
what is a moral entrepreneur?
someone of high status who publicly calls for a crackdown on crime
261
what is a typification?
ideas held by the police about hat a typical criminal is like
262
what is determinism?
the idea that our behaviour is caused by an external force outside our control , we have no free will
263
what is social construction?
something that has been made or defined by society rather than occurring naturally
264
what is the self fulfilling prophecy?
an individual tat lives up to their label that they have been given
