W2&3 - REFERENCES

Question 1

What does attachment theory suggest about early emotional bonds?

Answer 1

Bowlby (1969) proposed that attachment is a biologically driven process essential for survival and emotional development.

Question 2

What evidence supports the universality and normativity of attachment?

Answer 2

Mesman et al. (2016) found secure attachment to be the most common pattern globally across nine countries.

Question 3

What did … find in Zambia using the Strange Situation?

Answer 3

Mooya et al. (2016) found Infants displayed attachment behaviours with both mothers and siblings; 59% were securely attached to mothers, supporting both the universality and normativity hypotheses.

Question 4

What did Lorenz discover about imprinting and attachment?

Answer 4

Lorenz (1935) found that geese imprint on the first moving object they see, supporting that attachment is innate and not tied to feeding.

Question 5

What did Harlow & Zimmerman show about attachment in monkeys?

Answer 5

Harlow & Zimmerman (1959) found infant monkeys preferred cloth mothers offering comfort over wire mothers offering food, suggesting emotional security is more important than nourishment.

Question 6

What did … highlight about culture in attachment research?

Answer 6

Tomlinson et al. (2014) noted that most attachment research is based in Western cultures, which represent only 10% of the global population.

Question 7

What did … find in African attachment studies?

Answer 7

Voges et al. (2019) reviewed nine studies across five countries and found secure attachment was the most common classification.

Question 8

What global findings were reported by metaanlysis …?

Answer 8

Madigan et al. (2023) examined 20,000 participants across continents using the SSP and found secure attachment was most prevalent.

Question 9

What is the Strange Situation Procedure and what did it find?

Answer 9

Ainsworth et al. (1978) developed the SSP for 12–20-month-olds and found that 60% of US infants were securely attached; it revealed individual differences in reunion behaviour.

Question 10

How is caregiver sensitivity related to attachment security?

Answer 10

Ainsworth et al. (1978) found that caregiver sensitivity—the ability to accurately perceive and respond to infant signals—is strongly linked to secure attachment (r = .78, N = 23).

Question 11

What did .. show in their meta-analysis across cultures?

Answer 11

Van IJzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) found Maternal secure attachment was the most common classification across cultures.

Question 12

What cultural critique did … offer about attachment theory?

Answer 12

Keller (2018) argued that Western research overemphasises dyadic bonds and verbal behaviour as signs of attachment, overlooking cultural diversity.

Question 13

What is mind-mindedness and how is it linked to attachment?

Answer 13

Meins (2017) found that mind-mindedness is associated with caregiver sensitivity and predicts attachment security and positive emotional outcomes.

Question 14

What correlation did find regarding sensitivity and what about AQS?

Answer 14

Van IJzendoorn et al. (2004) found A moderate correlation between caregiver sensitivity and secure attachment; AQS test–retest reliability r = .50.

Question 15

What does .. show about attachment change over time?

Answer 15

Booth-LaForce et al. (2014) found Insecure infants became secure when caregiving quality improved, supporting the revisionist model of attachment.

Question 16

What did … say about internal working models?

Answer 16

Fraley et al. (2011) found Early secure attachment helps develop internal working models that foster competence.

Question 17

How inter rater reliable is the SSP according to …?

Answer 17

Waters (1978) found The SSP showed high inter-rater reliability (κ ≈ 0.92), supporting its consistency.

Question 18

What criticism did … make of the validity of the SSP?

Answer 18

Bronfenbrenner (1977) argued that separation distress is a universal response, questioning whether SSP measures attachment or just stranger anxiety.

Question 19

What is the AQS and who developed it?

Answer 19

Waters & Deane (1990) developed the Attachment Q-Sort to measure secure base behaviour in natural settings through home observations.

Question 20

What is the CAI and who developed it?

Answer 20

Goetz et al. (2008) developed the Child Attachment Interview to assess representations of attachment in children aged 7–12 using semi-structured questions.

Question 21

What did find about the VALIDITY of CAI?

Answer 21

Madigan et al. (2016) found The CAI correlated with internalising and externalising behaviours, supporting its validity as a measure of attachment.

Question 22

What is the AAI and who developed it?

Answer 22

George, Kaplan & Main (1985) created the Adult Attachment Interview, categorising adults as secure, dismissing, preoccupied, or unresolved.

Question 23

What did .. find about the R and V of AAI?

Answer 23

Bakermans-Kranenburg & Van IJzendoorn (1993) found The AAI showed 78% test–retest reliability and was not influenced by social desirability or IQ.

Question 24

What did … find in relation to AAI test retest reliability?

Answer 24

Sagi et al. (1994) AAI test–retest reliability was 90% in young adults, indicating strong consistency.

Question 25

What did .. find about maternal sensitivity and security?

Answer 25

De Wolff & Van IJzendoorn (1997) A small correlation (r = .22) between maternal sensitivity and infant attachment security.

Question 26

What did ... find about fathers and attachment?

Answer 26

Lucassen et al. (2011) A weaker correlation (r = .12) between paternal sensitivity and infant attachment, suggesting caregiver impact may vary.

Question 27

Can parental sensitivity be improved through training?

Answer 27

Bakermans-Kranenburg et al. (2003) found that sensitivity and attachment security improved after intervention, though effect sizes were modest.

Question 28

What did ... find about the competence hypothesis and improving sensitivity?

Answer 28

Van IJzendoorn et al. (2023) Improving sensitivity raised attachment security (d = .23) but did not improve mental health outcomes (d = .07).

Question 29

What role does temperament play in attachment?

Answer 29

Rothbart & Ahadi (1994) suggested temperament influences how children elicit caregiving responses, potentially affecting attachment.

Question 30

What did Groh et al. (2017) find about temperament and attachment?

Answer 30

Temperament correlated with caregiver sensitivity (d = .22) and internalising behaviours (d = .27); temperament is ~50% heritable.

Question 31

What is the competence hypothesis according to Bowlby (1947)?

Answer 31

Secure attachment supports emotional, social, and cognitive competence; early disruptions can lead to later difficulties.

Question 32

What did Ainsworth (1985) argue about competence?

Answer 32

Secure attachment promotes exploration, confidence, and emotional regulation in children.

Question 33

What link between attachment and externalising behaviour?

Answer 33

Fearon et al. (2010) Insecure attachment (especially disorganised) predicted externalising problems, more so in boys.

Question 34

What did ... find about internalising behaviours?

Answer 34

Groh et al. (2012) Insecurely attached children showed more internalising behaviours; avoidant infants were most affected.

Question 35

What did ... find in adopted children?

Answer 35

Stams et al. (2002) Early secure attachment predicted better adolescent social competence but not internalising symptoms.

Question 36

What do ... say about predicting outcomes/competence hypothesis?

Answer 36

De Klyen & Greenberg (2016) Developmental outcomes are shaped by equifinality and multifinality—multiple paths to the same result or multiple outcomes from the same start—challenging the competence hypothesis.