Week 7

Question 1

What is memory

Answer 1

Memory is the process by which we encode, store and retrieve information
* Not static, can change over time
* Sometimes we “fill in the gaps”
* Generally adaptive and sometimes correct, but makes us prone to error
* Brains go above and beyond available information to make sense of the world

Question 2

Name the 3 foundations of memory

Answer 2

Encoding : Initiral recording of the information
Storage : Information saved for future use
Retrieval : Recovery of stored information

Question 3

Three stage model memory

Answer 3

• 3 different types of memory, differ in span and duration
• Information must travel through all stages in order to be remembered
• SENSORY –> STM à LTM

Question 4

Sensory memory

Answer 4

Storage of brief sensory events, such as
sights, sounds, and tastes.
* Each sense has own sensory memory – very brief
* Iconic: visual system, < 1 sec
* Echoic: auditory, 2-3 secs
* Snapshot that stores sensory info
* Unless it is transferred to other types of memory, it is lost
* High precision!

Question 5

Short term memory

Answer 5

Limited capacity memory system where information is retained for only as long as 30 seconds (unless you try to retain it longer, via rehearsal!)

• Capacity is 7 +- 2 (magic number 7)
• STMs are either discarded or stored in LTM

Question 6

How do you extend STM capacity

Answer 6

Can extend our STM span by chunking (organizing large body of info into smaller, meaningful groups)

Question 7

What is rehearsal

Answer 7

the reptition of info that has entered STM
* leads to memory consolidation

Question 8

What is maintenance rehearsal

Answer 8

Repeating the stimuli in the same form

Question 9

Elaborative rehearsal

Answer 9

Information is considered & organized!
* Link stimuli to each other in meaningful way
* Usually more effective – much more likely to be transferred
* UNDERSTAND not memorize

Question 10

What is working memory

Answer 10

A set of active, temporary memory stores that manipulate and rehearse information.
* Working memory is thought to contain a central executive processor that is involved in reasoning & decision-making
* Mental whiteboard

Question 11

Long term memory

Answer 11

• Continuous storage of
  information
• May last decades OR lifetime
• It has no limit and is like the
  information you store on the
  hard drive of a computer
• Anterograde vs. retrograde
  amnesia evidences the
  distinction from STM

Question 12

Primacy effect

Answer 12

Ability to remember stimuli presented first

Question 13

Recency effect

Answer 13

Ability to remember stimuli presented recently

Question 14

Henry Molaison

Answer 14

Henry Molaison, commonly known as H.M., underwent surgery to remove his hippocampus in an attempt to treat his severe seizures. This procedure left him unable to form new explicit memories and caused retrograde amnesia, which meant he couldn’t remember events from about 11 years before the surgery.

The Canadian-British neuroscientist Brenda Milner studied him extensively and discovered that, although H.M. could not recall performing tasks like the mirror tracing task, he showed improvement over time. This indicated that while his ability to form new explicit memories was impaired due to hippocampal damage, he could still learn new skills.

H.M.’s case highlighted the distinction between explicit memory, which involves conscious recollection, and implicit memory, which involves learning and performing tasks without conscious awareness. This case significantly advanced our understanding of how different types of memory are processed in the brain.

Question 15

LTM Declarative memory

What does explicit memory, semantic, and episiodic mean

Answer 15

Explicit memory: conscious recollection of information, such as facts & events

Semantic: general knowledge
* Knowing who the prime minister is

Episodic: recollection of events in our lives
* The Christmas you finally got a CD player
* Your first kiss
* Your first day of university

Question 16

Implicit memory

Answer 16

– memory in which behaviour is affected by a prior experience without a conscious recollection of that
experience

Question 17

Procedural memory

Answer 17

Memory for how to do things

Question 18

Priming

Answer 18

Activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember/identify new info faster

Question 19

Hippocampus and what happens if damaged

Answer 19

plays a role in memory consolidation (helps in initial encoding)
* Damage leads to inability to process new declarative memories

Question 20

Amygdala

Answer 20

Amygdala: heavily involved with memories involving emotion (e.g., traumatic experiences, phobias)

Question 21

Long term potentiation

Answer 21

Certain neural pathways become easily excited while a new response is being learned (neurons that fire together, wire together)

synapses between neurons increase, dendrites branch out

Question 22

Why do we forget ?

Answer 22

Encoding failures

Question 23

Are most events we experience encoded

Answer 23

No they are not

Question 24

Encoding failures

Stress

Answer 24

Stress
* Stress reduces the accuracy of eyewitness recall and correct identification (e.g., POW study, less accurate ID with high intensity interrogation)
* Stress can focus attention (e.g., pen vs. syringe experiment)

Question 25

What are some other reasons why encoding failures happen

Answer 25

Own age bias Cross race effect

Question 26

Why do we forget

Answer 26

Retrieval failure

Question 27

Interference

Answer 27

Loss of information due to competitiono with new info

Question 28

Retroactive interference

Answer 28

Learning new info hampers something previously learned

Question 29

Proactive interference

Answer 29

Earlier learning getts in the way of learning something new

Question 30

What is amnesia

Answer 30

The loss of long term memory that occurs as a result of disease, physical trauama or psychological trauma

Question 31

Explain anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia

Answer 31

(1) Anterograde amnesia: inability to remember new info after point of trauma * Commonly caused by brain trauma * Hippocampus is usually affected – inability to transfer info from STM to LTM (2) Retrograde amnesia: loss of memory (partial or complete) for events that occurred prior to trauma

Question 32

Clive Weavering

Answer 32

Clive Wearing, a former musicologist, suffered from herpes simplex encephalitis in 1985, which severely damaged his central nervous system and destroyed much of his hippocampus. This left him with profound anterograde and retrograde amnesia, earning him the nickname "30 Second Clive" due to his extremely short memory span. Despite these severe memory impairments, Clive retains the ability to play the piano, which highlights the distinction between declarative (explicit) memory and non-declarative (implicit) memory. His case has provided valuable insights into how different types of memory function and are stored in the brain.

Question 33

# Retrieving memories Retrieval

Answer 33

The act of getting information out of memory storage and back int o consciou sawareness

Question 34

Explain recall and recognition in retrieving memories

Answer 34

1. Recall – being able to access information without cues (e.g., for a short answer test) 2. Recognition – being able to identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again (e.g., multiple-choice questions)

Question 35

Levels of processing theory

Answer 35

* The depth of information during exposure to material (the degree to which it is analyzed & considered) is critical * The greater the intensity of the initial processing, the more likely we are to remember it!

Question 36

# LEvels of processing theory Shallow & Deepest

Answer 36

Shallow : Information processed by physical & sensory aspects ( ex; memoriing key terms) Deepest : Analyzing information in terms of meaning - think about the meaning and reflecting on how they relate to information we already know

Question 37

Encoding specificity

Answer 37

Remembering something better when the conditions under which we retrieve the info are similar to the encoding conditions

Question 38

Context dependent learning

Answer 38

Context-dependent learning * Scuba study * E.g., students tend to do better when tested in their usual classroom State-dependent learning * Alcoholism

Question 39

Flashbulb memory

Answer 39

A record of an atypical and unusual event that has very strong emotional associations. * Memories that are exceptional are more easily retrieved (though not necessary accurate) Depending on age and awareness/interests, certain flashbulb memories act as generational reference points. Eg: * Assassinations of John Kennedy, Martin Luther King * The first humans landing on the Moon * Attacks on 9/11

Question 40

Memory is reconstructive so

Answer 40

* We forget over time * Memories change over time and can be influenced by: * Cognitive “hardware” (stereotypes, schema, scripts) * Post-event information Important implications for the courtroom!

Question 41

What are schemas & scripts

Answer 41

Organized knowledge structures or mental models that we’ve stored in memory – used to “fill in the gap” * Memory may be distorted to conform with schema/script * E.g., robbery script study – ps recalled omitted details to conform with script (Holst & Pezdek,1992) * Stereotypes can also influence memories

Question 42

What is suggestibility

Answer 42

The effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories. * Can cause people to claim to remember something that was only a suggestion someone made * Memories are fragile, vulnerable to suggestion * Important area of study is eyewitness testimony

Question 43

Misinformation effect

Answer 43

Where post-event information alters or becomes incorporated into the original memory (Loftus, 1974) * How fast were the cars going when they ______ into each other? * Did you see any broken glass? * What did you see vs. did you see the car pass the yield sign?

Question 44

Name 2 studies of false memories

Answer 44

In the Loftus (1997) study, participants were asked to recall events from their past, which included three true events and one false event. After two interviews, 25% of the participants remembered the implanted false memory of being lost at the mall. In the Hyman et al. (1997) study, participants were told they had spilled punch on a wedding guest when they were 5 years old. Initially, none of the participants recalled this event, but eventually, 27% accepted it as true and even added additional details to the false memory. Both studies illustrate the ease with which false memories can be implanted through suggestion and repeated questioning, highlighting the malleable nature of human memory.

Question 45

Laboratory induction of false childhood memories

Answer 45

Researchers have successfully implanted various false childhood memories in laboratory settings. These memories range from mildly traumatic experiences to more benign yet fabricated events. Examples of such implanted memories include: - Being hospitalized overnight - Being attacked by a dog - Nearly drowning - Witnessing demonic possession - Meeting Bugs Bunny at Disneyland These studies, as noted by Saletan in 2010, illustrate the susceptibility of human memory to suggestion and manipulation, further emphasizing the malleable nature of our recollections. This research has significant implications for understanding the reliability of memory, particularly in legal and therapeutic contexts.

Question 46

Memory Hacker Shaw & Porter

Answer 46

In the "Memory Hacker" study by Shaw and Porter (2015), researchers explored the controversial idea that false memories of committing a crime could be implanted in participants. The study involved 60 college students who underwent three interviews. By the end of the study, **70% of the participants** were convinced they had committed a crime, such as theft or assault with a weapon, even though these events never occurred. This study highlights the potential for false memories to be created through suggestive memory-retrieval techniques, raising important questions about the reliability of memory, especially in legal contexts. Is there anything else you'd like to know about this study or memory research in general?

Question 47

What is the leading cause of wrongful convinctions

Answer 47

eyewitness misidentification

Question 48

Explain line up procedures

Answer 48

Witnesses identify a culprit from a lineup or photo array * Lineups contain the suspect and a set of foils or distractors