3 The impact of industrialisation on political thinking Flashcards
(276 cards)
1
Q
3 ways the industrial revolution changed political ideologies
A
- REDUCED INDIVIDUALISM AND GREATER COLLECTIVE IDENTITY - people can no longer live off the fruits of their own labour in a specialised economy. Urbanisation and class identity have reduced individualism
- HUMAN NATURE CHALLENGED
- HEIRARCHY UNDER ATTACK and new industrial wealthy classes
2
Q
3 ways conservatism suffers from the consequences of the Industrial Revolution?
A
- Traditional institutions are undermined
- Platoons are disrupted by urbanisation, but also by increased work commitment
- Human nature ideas develop - gregariousness seemed to be undermined
3
Q
2 ways liberalism is challenged by the consequences of the Industrial Revolution?
A
- Individualism undermined by greater collective identity and specialisation
- Human competitiveness seems to have created oppression, rather than equal opportunity
4
Q
Which ideology suffers worst from the Industrial Revolution and why?
A
Liberalism - created the necessary conditions but failed to anticipate the consequences.
5
Q
What example shows that the Industrial Revolution was created by liberalism?
A
George Stephenson - built Locomotion, a train from Darlington to Stockton, thanks to government’s laissez-faire policy
Was an illiterate child
Was an illiterate child.
6
Q
How was Robert Owen typical of the liberal tradition? Who did he reflect
A
Education is necessary for character
Mary Wollstonecraft
7
Q
What three things did Robert Owen do at his factory?
A
- Had a social insurance scheme
- Education
- 10 hour working day
8
Q
What ideology is Robert Owen?
A
Proto-socialist but a liberal.
9
Q
How did Owen challenge the liberal tradition?
A
Began to introduce ideas which would become characteristic of Mill, namely that the individual was not a fully formed entity and required development over the course of their life (DEVELOPMENTAL INDIVIDUALISM)
10
Q
Is it narrow-minded to see Owen as a benevolent liberal?
A
Potentially. Also helped him make profit.
11
Q
Where does the pressure for liberalism to hasten its adoption of suffrage come from?
A
Chartist Risings, or the threat thereof, which cropped up in the 1830s.
12
Q
What evidence shows the Chartist Risings were fuelled by industrialisation?
A
Most of the revolutionaries were weavers, who had seen their esteem and wages plummet due to industrial techniques.
13
Q
What evidence shows the paternalistic state was failing, as Burke had warned?
A
Before the Chartist Risings, Parliament set up workhouses and controlled the price of bread, but did little to help the working poor.
14
Q
Why was the Great Reform Act of 1832 considered liberal?
A
Limited voting to those with property and hence, in the eyes of liberals, a legitimate stake.
15
Q
Bit of an extension - is their evidence that 1832 ideas about property ownership and suffrage remain incumbent in the UK to some extent?
A
Yes - the emphasis on the property-owning democracy is likely a response.
16
Q
What was the response to the 1832 Great Reform Act?
A
Chartist movements - petitions to win the vote, all rejected.
17
Q
What happened when the Chartist petitions failed?
A
Chartist revolution failed to materialise.
18
Q
What was the effect of the Chartist Risings on liberalism?
A
Seemed to vindicate Earl Gray’s view that democracy should be confined to those with a legitimate stake - he could cite the violence as evidence that those without property, “the mob”, are a threat to democracy
19
Q
Liberalism bases its view of self-actualisation off of the acquisition of property. Some began to challenge this. Who challenged the property view of self-actualisation? Why?
A
Proto-socialists - the Epicureans
Seeming increasing limitation of property as a form of self-actualisation
20
Q
What 3 things did the Epicureans say about happiness? How does it apply to later ideologies?
A
Happiness comes from
- Having friends and being part of a community
- Working to live, not living to work
- Bringing calm through meditation
Influence on SOCIALISM.
Influence on socialism.
21
Q
What happened to Epicureanism?
A
Disappeared from the Classical stage after Christians attacked the Epicurean commune and turned it into a monastery
22
Q
Why did Epicureanism inspire Marx and Engels?
A
Here was an example of a commune - self-sufficient and not more than that - which was utopian and collectivist
23
Q
What does Bentham seek to do with Epicureanism?
A
Bentham rejects that the solution is to work less hard, or to reverse the Industrial Revolution. Instead, he seeks to reconcile the Industrial Revolution and epicureanism by means of utilitarianism
24
Q
What are the four key principles of act utilitarianism?
A
- Teleology - we are focussed on the results of an action, not the intent or motivation
- Moral significance - morality is not a thing. Actions are amoral. Only consequences may be judged to be moral, on the basis of whether they cause, in aggregate, greater pleasure or pain
- Positive analysis - CORRECT actions
- Equality - we should please the greatest number
25
What two things does act utilitarianism conflate?
The morality of an action with whether it is good for society
Assumes humans fully internalise costs and benefits when making decisions - rational
26
In what main way was Benthamite hedonism not liberal?
Not exactly a positive view of human nature.
27
3 problems with Bentham's philosophy? How is this conceived in his time?
1. Certain individuals could be used as scapegoats if it pleases the majority. For instance, humans at a gladiator fight
2. Relies on an impractical Hedonic Calculus
3. Conflation of the pleasurable with the good takes a very narrow view of human nature
28
How does one find the absolute moral outcome for a situation according to Bentham?
Remember that, for Bentham, PLEASURE = MORALITY
Use the Hedonic Calculus - 7 principles for maximising pleasure and hence morality
29
What is Bentham's magnum opus?
Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789).
30
Why is Bentham best remembered as part of the Enlightenment?
Seeking merely to update what he saw as outdated ideas, notably divinely derived ideas about natural rights or liberties promoted by Locke.
Reacting against an outdated conception of morality, which he thinks is out of date in the scientific age
31
What are two pieces of context for Bentham?
1. Enlightenment - seeking to apply wisdom and rationality to things
2. Super highly educated and rational - went to Oxford aged 12
32
What are three things Bentham thought that underline his philosophy?
1. No actions are intrinsically moral or immoral
2. Rejected abstract notions such as natural law and religion
3. Empiricism is very important, and can guide us towards the correct moral expressions
33
What epistemology did Bentham follow?
Empiricism
People perceive the world around them and make decisions based on the balance of pleasure and pain. This is how they make moral, as well as self-regarding, decisions
34
What does Bentham say about human rights?
"nonsense on stilts"
Bentham's disdain for "natural" rights and suchlike - morals are determined by teleology and nothing else
35
What did Bentham believe about human nature?
All humans seek pleasure and avoid pain.
36
What is a quote about Benthamite human nature?
"Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pleasure and pain. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do as well as to determine what we shall do."
37
Why was Bentham's view egalitarian?
Each person counted for the same
"Each to count for one and none for more than one"
38
2 reasons Bentham's contemporary disapproved of act utilitarianism? What did they call it?
"Pig philosophy"
1. All human beings equal?
2. Justified cruelty
39
The good for Bentham...
Is that which creates the largest net benefit for the largest number
40
What is critical to remember about Bentham?
The conflation of good with pleasurable.
41
What are five pieces of context for JS Mill?
1. Bentham's godson. His father had created Mill as a project, to bear the torch of utilitarianism after Bentham's circle had died
2. Had an extremely rigorous upbringing. Shielded from human contact. Learnt Greek aged 3.
3. Suffered a mental breakdown aged 20 and read Wordsworth and Aristotle to help rehabilitate
4. Married Harriet Taylor, and renounced all his rights over her. Was a feminist
5. Worked for the British East India Company in London and held racist views
6. Whig MP and radical - 2nd MP to call for women's suffrage
42
Was Mill not a hedonist?
NO - he was!
He believed that humans were rationally motivated by pain and... HAPPINESS! And that happiness was not only pure pleasure but also intellectual enrichment
43
How does context underline Mill's view of hedonism?
Mill believes all people will eventually be intellectually stimulated maximisers of happiness, not pleasure.
May be because of his upbringing
44
What is a key Mill quote about happiness?
"The greatest happiness principle holds that actions are right in the proportion they tend to promote happiness, wrong if they tend to promote the reverse of happiness"
45
Does Mill still link morality to happiness?
Yes.
46
What differentiation did Mill make between happiness and pleasure?
There were higher pleasures which enriched the mind and lower pleasures which enrich the body. The higher pleasures will be preferred by all rational people, eventually
47
What about us makes us pick intellectual over pure pleasure happiness according to Mill?
Our experience and innate rationality.
48
Why does Mill see education as necessary?
Only by being exposed to the higher pleasures will people tend to prefer them
49
What is universalisability? What does it lead to?
If an act is right or wrong for one person in a situation, then it is right or wrong for anyone in that situation
RULE UTILITARIANISM
50
What is rule utilitarianism?
The idea that what is right is what makes one happy, but also that it is immoral if it has a large detrimental impact on the happiness of others
51
Which other liberal thinker does Mill's developmental individualism contrast with?
Rousseau - instead of people being educated enough to seek higher pleasures, Rousseau believes in noble savagery
52
What is a quote about higher and lower pleasures by Mill?
"Some kinds of pleasure are more desirable and more valuable than others."
53
How does universalisability protect minority rights?
If an action is right or wrong for anyone in a situation, then it is right or wrong for everyone in that situation
54
What are three ways Mill's utilitarianism is liberal?
1. Protection of minority rights
2. Equality between individuals
3. Emphasis on rationality and the rationality of educated people
55
Did Mill support slavery?
No. Opposed the Confederacy and saw slavery as a stain on the USA's liberal record
56
Does Mill always argue against paternalism and despotism?
No. Interestingly, argued for "benevolent despotism" in India, as long as the end was Westernisation
57
How does romanticism impact Mill's thinking?
Challenges the idea that men are machines motivated only by pleasure.
58
What is Mill's space within the specification and what is he therefore referred to as?
Bridges the gap between classical liberalism and modern liberalism
"Transitional liberalism"
59
What is THE key difference between Locke and Mill?
What humans are we giving liberty to?
Mill refers to the potential for people to be rational and high achieving. Locke talks about us as if we are finished products.
MILL SAW US NOT AS A "FINISHED ARTICLE" BUT AS A "WORK IN PROGRESS"
60
What are four points of Mill on human nature?
1. DEVELOPMENTAL INDIVIDUALISM, which Mill called INDIVIDUALITY. Humans are not finished articles
2. Humans are CAPABLE of rationality
3. Humans are HEDONISTIC - the initial failure comes from humans seeking lower pleasures. By education they might be guided towards seeking higher pleasures
4. NOT FIXED
61
What is Mill's magnum opus and its main argument?
On Liberty 1859
NEGATIVE LIBERTY IS DEFINITIVE
62
What are four Millian views on the state?
1. NEGATIVE LIBERTY - people should be free to do all SELF-REGARDING actions, and limited only in OTHER REGARDING actions where, under the principle of universalisability, their actions would harm others
2. THE HARM PRINCIPLE - the state can only intervene to reduce harm
3. DEMOCRACY IS FLAWED because of developmental individualism - but Mill favoured democracy
4. LIMITED GOVERNMENT - NEGATIVE LIBERTY - LINK TO LOCKE
63
What is the harm principle?
The state may only intervene when there is a clear case to reduce harm.
64
Ultimately, Mill expresses similar views on the state to...
Locke
65
What laws would a Millian state have in place? Compares to...
Protection for minorities
Friedan
66
What are three views Mill expresses on society?
1. THE BIGGEST THREAT TO LIBERTY IS NEGATIVE LIBERTY
2. TOLERANCE which can be developed through EDUCATION
3. There should be EQUAL RIGHTS FOR MEN AND WOMEN
67
What are three views of Mill on the economy?
1. PRIVATE PROPERTY FACILITATES INDIVIDUALISM
2. A MERITOCRATIC SOCIETY will have inequality
3. LAISSEZ-FAIRE CAPITALISM
68
What is the harm principle?
The state should only intervene when there is a clear case that doing so will reduce harm.
69
Did Mill name exceptions to his harm principle?
Yes - Mill listed people he considered non-rational, including Indians and children
70
What economic school of thought did Mill subscribe to? Why might this have been the case?
Free market capitalism
Affinity to utilitarianism
71
What is an example of free market capitalism's affinity to utilitarianism?
William Jevons, founder of the marginal utility school, was a follower of Bentham.
72
What are two key works of Mill?
1. On Liberty, 1859 - most of his key work
2. The Subjection of Women, co-authored with his wife Harriett Taylor
73
What aspect of Mill's view of the state is anti-utilitarian?
Utilitarianism provided a justification for state intervention, since the morality of doing so was justified by any material benefit such intervention caused
74
What aspect of human nature does Mill share with Locke?
Belief that whilst humans are fundamentally egotistical and self-centred, they moderate this in their interactions with others since unmitigated self-aggrandisement usually limits their ability to get what they want
75
Where does Mill's emphasis on a need for education come from?
Mill believes utilitarianism's fundamental premise - that humans are motivated by pleasure and pain - is fundamentally correct. Education is needed to make people move past merely the satisfaction of short-term pleasure and pain
76
What aspect of his view of human nature does Mill share with Locke?
Belief that whilst humans are fundamentally egotistical and self-centred, they moderate this in their interactions with others since unmitigated self-aggrandisement usually limits their ability to get what they want.
77
Where does Mill's emphasis on a need for education come from?
Mill believes utilitarianism's fundamental premise - that humans are motivated by pleasure and pain - is fundamentally correct. Education is needed to make people move past merely the satisfaction of short-term pleasure and pain.
78
What was at the basis of John Stuart Mill's guidance for Victorian state builders?
Seek to create the conditions for an individualistic society.
79
What was Mill's view of minorities?
Tolerance should be upheld - people should be free from 'dull conformity' and 'suffocating convention'.
80
How are Mill's ideas about tolerance upheld today?
Liberal Democrat manifesto - 'no one shall be enslaved by... conformity'.
81
What is the theory behind Mill's tolerance?
State should tolerate all opinions unless they violate the 'harm principle'.
82
How can we evaluate the harm principle?
Seems sound - but many legitimate actions harm the liberty of others. For instance, car emissions harm the respiratory freedom of others. Should this be restricted?
Too absolutist
83
What did Mill believe education would achieve? Hence his view on democracy?
A consensus view
Education necessary for democracy
84
Key thing about Mill and negative liberty?
This is his main argument. He explains it using the HARM PRINCIPLE as outlined in ON LIBERTY (1859).
85
What actions should be not regulated by the harm principle?
Self-regarding actions.
86
Why is the tolerance Mill espouses not really tolerance?
He believes a liberal consensus will be achieved. Basically, once all views are aired equally, he can discredit them more easily.
87
How does private property facilitate individualism for Mill?
Gives a sense of individualism and reflects each person's preference.
88
Locke view on voting without property rights?
He disapproved of it.
89
What, besides an ambivalence towards democracy, do liberals put in place to safeguard against the 'tyranny of the majority'?
Strong separation of powers etc.
90
John Stuart Mill view on universal suffrage?
1. Reservations about it
2. Feared "tyranny of the majority"
91
What was Mill's final view on democracy?
We need to accept it is coming. Give women the right to vote. Use the political process to educate people. But people should still be educated first wherever possible.
92
What economic text did Mill commend?
Wealth of Nations.
93
Why did Mill come to support intervention to educate people?
Democracy couldn't function without it.
94
What was Mill's view of education and voting at the highest level of education? Eval?
People who are highly educated should get more votes
People say this today
ALSO MILL SUPPORTED STATE SPONSORED EDUCATION, BUT ONLY TO A VERY BASIC/CHEAP LEVEL, JUST TO GIVE EVERYONE THE TOOLS TO GRASP A LIBERAL SOCIETY. REJECTED A STATE MONOPOLY ON EDUCATION.
## Footnote
People say this today.
95
3 late classical liberals (i.e. hanging onto Lockian notions)?
1. Jeremy Bentham
2. Samuel Smiles
3. Herbert Spencer
96
How does Bentham describe pleasure and pain?
'Two sovereign masters'.
97
3 facts about Samuel Smiles
1. Publishes Self Help, the second most popular book in England
2. It was the responsibility of the individual, via free association, to improve their lot
3. Let to the formation of co-operatives, with the symbol of the bee, symbolising collaboration yet individualism
98
3 facts about Herbert Spencer
1. Very optimistic about historical progress, or at least sees it as incontrovertible
2. The Industrial Revolution will purge the weak
3. Act utilitarianism - no moral necessity to protect those on the bottom
99
Are humans naturally resistant to change?
Evidence suggests yes.
100
How was Burke adopted by the 19th century Tories?
The need to 'change to conserve' was expostulated by 'enlightened Tory' governments.
101
How did enlightened Tories aim to avoid revolutionary change?
Embracing moderate reforms.
102
2 ways George Canning had a Burkean attitude to change?
1. Catholic emancipation - allow Catholics into Parliament
2. Abolition of slavery
103
Key Canning quote which shows Burkean empirical change attitude?
'Though emancipation carries dangers, civil strife carries even greater dangers.'
104
Example of how conservatives changed to conserve with regards to the franchise?
In 1832, Robert Peel's Conservatives supported the Great Reform Act, ensuring Industrial towns got representation
Rationalised it by saying they are better in the tent than outside it
## Footnote
Rationalised it by saying they are better in the tent than outside it.
105
How did Peel reflect Hobbesian ideas?
"Without security there can be no liberty"
When he was home secretary, created the Met Police
106
Who created one-nationism?
In Germany, Otto von Bismarck and in the UK Benjamin Disraeli.
107
Where does one-nationism come from?
Threat of socialism.
108
Disraeli quote about changing to conserve?
'The palace is not safe when the cottage is not happy.'
109
3 ways one nationism changes from Burkean conservatism?
1. Class solidarity and nationalism - end of small platoons
2. Paternalism replaced by state intervention
3. Imperialism
110
What did one-nation conservatives think of laissez-faire capitalism - two examples?
Did not trust it
1. Factory Act 1874
2. Bismarck welfare state
## Footnote
1. Factory Act 1874 2. Bismarck welfare state.
111
How else was Bismarck ambivalent towards laissez-faire?
Extensive use of tariffs.
112
Who articulates the frustrations of African Americans excluded from the liberal project?
Frederick Douglas - 1852 - 'what to a slave is the 4th July'.
113
Why is manifest destiny liberal and why is this problematic?
Locke's Labour Theory of Property
Genocidal?
## Footnote
Genocidal?
114
What phenomenon does industrialisation give rise to which many socialists begin to attach to?
Wage slavery.
115
What does Hegel argue about history?
It is a linear dialectic between ideas progressing towards German idealism.
116
Major piece of context for Hegel and how is it relevant?
German Enlightenment
Shares the context with Marx
## Footnote
Shares the context with Marx.
117
What philosophy of history does Hegel attack?
The liberal theory of linear progress from darkness to enlightenment.
118
Does Hegel espouse a fixed view of human nature? Relevance?
No, says it varies with historical context
Mr Marx would agree
## Footnote
Mr Marx would agree.
119
What is the dialectic?
1. A thesis (consensus) emerges and predominates
2. A conservative antithesis emerges and reacts
3. Eventually, a synthesis forms and this continues as the next thesis
120
What do Marx and Engels do to the Hegelian dialectic?
Substitute the dialectic of ideas with the dialectic of class.
121
What closes the gap between thesis and antithesis for Marx and Engels? What is this gap called?
Social revolution
Antagonism
## Footnote
Antagonism.
122
What is the problem with Marx and Engels' view of the state?
It is a commonplace that neither Marx nor Engels developed a cogent class theory of the state
Marx left it up to Engels who began to theorise on the state's role, but Engels did not have great success, only managing to define the outline
123
Marx's theory of the state appears to...
Be in existence before his earlier works, and inspired heavily by other thinkers. For example, Marx draws on Rousseau's criticism of parliamentarianism.
124
3 views Marx takes of the state in his earliest works?
1. The state is an irrational abstraction
2. The state denies and alienates the inherently social nature of people
3. The state attempts to appropriate bureaucratic power for itself
125
How did Marx's own analysis of the state predate the horrors of state communism?
He warned that the state in any form was often used in an end in itself by those within the state seeking to further their own power.
126
Do Marx and Engels COMPLETELY depend on economic materialism as a vehicle of analysis?
No - they are sensitive to the problems of economic reductionism.
127
What is the instrumentalist view of the state and who espouses it?
The state is a method of furthering bourgeois interests
Marx and Engels
## Footnote
Marx and Engels.
128
What mechanistic view of the state do Marx and Engels take?
The state emerges at the stage in economic development when social division of labour begins in earnest.
129
What crucial breakthrough regarding the theory of the state is made in Marx's The Civil War in France?
The proletariat must smash the socially repressive machinery of the modern state and find new ways of delivering the socially necessary functions of the state
Marx expresses the idea that the state is oppressive even when not controlled by the oppressors. Its nature is oppressive. He refers this to the context in France in 1871, but also in more general terms
130
Is the state just an epiphenomenon of economics in Marx and Engels' view?
No.
But for the exam yes it pretty much is
## Footnote
But for the exam yes it pretty much is.
131
Fundamentally, the aim of the socialist economy is to...
Why does this allow for variation over the future course of socialism?
Provide stability for the working classes by eliminating the boom and bust cycle, provide for the ownership of the means of the factors of production by the working class
Anthony Crosland and Giddens will argue this can be accomplished within a capitalist framework
132
Is Burke a typical conservative vis-a-viz his relationship with capitalism?
No, he is more ardent than many conservatives, who would rather be considered 'reluctant capitalists'.
133
5 relevant pieces of context for Marx and Engels?
1. Both grow up in authoritarian Germany and grow accustomed to German intellectual tradition e.g. Hegel
2. The Industrial Revolution
3. Both are bourgeois, though Marx is Jewish and it seems he faced persecution that prevented him from fully assimilating to the bourgeoisie. Perhaps this "critical distance" allows him to observe class dynamics more fluently?
4. Marx had been a radical before his political theory, writing extensively in radical newspapers, leading to his eventual exile
5. Engels treats women very poorly, whereas Marx is much nicer to them
134
5 philosophical influences on Marx and Engels?
1. Epicureanism - embrace
2. Rejection of utilitarianism
3. Hegel
4. Donne
5. Robert Owen
135
Who is Donne and how does he influence Marx?
John Donne - English recusant poet
Emphasised collectivism - "no man is an island"
## Footnote
Emphasised collectivism - 'no man is an island'.
136
What major reframing did Marx and Engels perform on the view of human nature?
Humans are SOCIAL and ECONOMIC BEINGS.
137
3 views of Marx and Engels on human nature?
1. "Species being" - i.e. self-fulfilment - comes from unalienated labour, i.e. labour where one sees the fruits of ones works
2. "False consciousness" - human beings are corrupted by capitalism and its influence into a false sense of competitiveness. Hence human nature is far more flexible and elastic than conservatives concede
3. Human nature is not just malleable, it is naturally good. Eventually, a society of "from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs" would flourish and selfishness would be vanquished
138
What did Marx/Engels believe corrupted present human nature?
Capitalist modes of production.
139
3 views of Marx and Engels on society?
1. Capitalist society is riven with a bifurcating class division, which creates conflict. But a socialist society would resolve this
2. The economic circumstances create societal circumstances; for instance, bourgeois domination is created by the economic conditions
3. The final socialist society will be EGALITARIAN with "from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs"
140
Who responded fiercely against 'from each according to his ability, to each according to his need'?
Ayn Rand - Atlas Shrugged's car plant which adopted this as its motto and went bankrupt.
141
3 views of Marx and Engels on the state?
1. DISTINCT FROM ANARCHISM - as Engels says, "the state is not abolished, it withers away". But this will take TIME.
2. After the revolution, a "dictatorship of the proletariat" will be established
3. The existing state is a "committee" for the bourgeoisie and needs decapitation by revolution
142
Why is Marx and Engels' view of the state within socialism important and distinct?
Later parliamentary socialists will challenge it.
143
3 views of Marx and Engels on the economy?
1. The ultimate flaw of capitalism was its woeful inefficiency - its ability to create surpluses for the wealthy and deny the working class basic living standards.
2. PPEism going on. Marx defined clear links between economics and the workings of the state, and used the language of economic analysis to explain social antagonisms
3. Private property must be abolished
144
Where do Marx and Engels think that the capitalist economy came from? What does this lead them to with their view of the likelihood of revolution?
Dialectic waves, from slave economy to feudal economy to capitalist economy
Makes revolution seem inevitable because it is just the next natural progression
## Footnote
Makes revolution seem inevitable because it is just the next natural progression.
145
What key economic concept did Marx and Engels introduce?
"Surplus value", or essentially retained profit
Explaining that firms do not pay workers linked to their productivity or, in essence, HOW MUCH THEY DESERVE. They pay workers the minimum in order to retain the rest of the profit to re-invest and buttress bourgeois dominance
## Footnote
Explaining that firms do not pay workers linked to their productivity or, in essence, HOW MUCH THEY DESERVE. They pay workers the minimum in order to retain the rest of the profit to re-invest and buttress bourgeois dominance.
146
What was communism according to Marx and Engels?
The classless society at the end of the dialectic.
147
What was communism also referred to as by Marx and Engels?
The 'End of History'.
148
3 relevant contextual facts for Lenin?
1. French speaking corrupt aristocracy
2. Infrastructure of centralised state power
3. Not industrialised
149
3 key features of Marxist-Leninist revolution?
1. VANGUARDISM - a Marxist vanguard must lead the overthrow
2. DEMOCRATIC CENTRALISM - "false consciousness" would be rooted out by limiting the remit of debate to within the communist party
3. "False consciousness" would be overcome by "RE-EDUCATION" in the pedagogical sense i.e. seeing learners as PEOPLE WHO NEED TO BE IMPARTED WITH KNOWLEDGE, NOT PEOPLE WHO NEED TO UNDERSTAND
150
What institution would the Marxist-Leninist revolution create and how did this influence statecraft?
The Communist Party
The Communist Party would BE the state, and the dictatorship of the proletariat
## Footnote
The Communist Party would BE the state, and the dictatorship of the proletariat.
151
Problem with Marxist-Leninism?
Huge scope for revolutionary abuse e.g. Pol Pot.
152
Why did Luxemburgish revolution get a lot of emphasis in the latter half of the twentieth century?
FAILURE of Marxist-Leninist.
153
3 contextual facts about Luxemburg's Germany, that makes Luxemburgish revolution different?
1. Industrial, with trade unions
2. Bourgeois democracy - people expect a say in elections
3. Bismarckian welfare systems
154
1 reason Marxism is compatible with feminism? 1 reason it is not?
1. Marx sees class discrimination as imposed and not natural
2. Engels embraces elements of "social darwinism"
155
3 reasons to think Marx was a feminist?
1. Educated his daughters and took them to the British Library
2. Daughter Eleanor was senior in the "new unions" movement
3. Marx quoted Charles Fourier, French utopian socialist who wrote that women's liberation was linked to the progress of society
156
3 reasons early socialists opposed equal rights for women?
1. Saw it as a capitalist mangling of women's "natural" roles and further evidence capitalism's rapaciousness would not stop at leaving women out of the workplace
2. Many see equality and the striving towards it as bourgeois and campaigning for equal opportunities for women in a system they believe is unfair anyway as pointless
3. Undermining the value of male labour, particularly in trade unions
157
What is discrimination considered as?
Discrimination is imposed and not natural.
158
What elements does Engels embrace?
Engels embraces elements of 'social darwinism'.
159
What are 3 reasons to think Marx was a feminist?
1. Educated his daughters and took them to the British Library.
2. Daughter Eleanor was senior in the 'new unions' movement.
3. Marx quoted Charles Fourier, who linked women's liberation to societal progress.
160
What are 3 reasons early socialists opposed equal rights for women?
1. Saw it as a capitalist mangling of women's 'natural' roles.
2. Many viewed equality as bourgeois and pointless in an unfair system.
3. Undermined the value of male labor, particularly in trade unions.
161
What did Beatrice Webb think about revolution?
Webb believed revolution would cause more chaos than it's worth.
162
Who does Beatrice Webb reject as a husband?
Jo Chamberlain, who represented radical 'gas and water socialism'.
163
What are 2 facts about Sidney Webb?
1. Working class - self-educated
2. Worked for the Civil Service and was a member of the Fabians, where he met Beatrice Potter
164
3 ways Webb was a feminist? Eval?
1. Rocked by the death of her 2 sisters by apparent suicides due to poor marital relationships.
2. Rejected Joseph Chamberlain for being overbearing.
3. Unsatisfied with becoming a debutante, so worked with cousin Charles Booth.
165
What are 3 things the Webbs 'did'?
1. Founded the New Statesman and the LSE.
2. Minority Report on the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws 1909.
3. Clause IV of the Labour Party Constitution.
166
What did Sidney Webb conspicuously NOT do?
Accept the title Lady Passfield when Sidney became Lord Passfield.
167
What happened regarding the Poor Laws?
With the support of Winston Churchill, Webb's minority report was adopted and the measure was scrapped.
168
What was the Poor Law?
The government's welfare provision, widely seen as inadequate.
169
What was Webb's methodology?
SOCIAL SCIENTIST
1. Observe
2. Test
170
How are the Webbs different?
They work within the system - within a party, government, etc.
171
What are 3 ways Webb's view emphasizes evolution, not revolution?
1. Commissions and research are analytic and problem-oriented.
2. Sidney becomes a Lord and both become Labour Party grandees.
3. Link to Fabians.
172
What is the Fabian motto?
'Educate, agitate, organise'.
173
What is Webb's view of equality?
There should be equality of opportunity, BUT NOT EQUALITY OF OUTCOME, different from early socialists.
174
What are 3 key points from the Fabian constitution?
1. Socialists.
2. Believes in common ownership and the extinction of private property.
3. 'Constitutional methods'.
175
What form does Fabian common ownership take?
Nationalisations, with industries run by the government in the interest of 'common good', not profit.
176
What focus does the Fabian Society have?
First, educate. "Educate, agitate, organise" is the motto.
Lectures
177
WHAT IDEOLOGY IS BEATRICE WEBB SAID TO ENCAPSULATE?
DEMOCRATIC OR EVOLUTIONARY SOCIALISM.
178
When did evolutionary socialism really gain ground?
Post-war, but was always particularly popular in Britain.
179
What are 4 key tenets of Webb's thought?
1. Evolution is far more likely to carry success than revolution.
2. Poverty and inequality are better solved by extensive intervention.
3. Neither conservative paternalism nor liberal philanthropy was on the scale or breadth required.
4. Capitalism was the principal cause.
180
How did Webb describe capitalism?
Chief cause of "crippling poverty and demeaning inequality"
As well as "corrupting force" for humanity - "unnatural"
181
What is the evaluation of the Minority Report on the Poor Laws 1909?
Basically all became government policy after the Beveridge Report.
182
What are 4 views of Webb on capitalism?
1. It hasn't ALL been bad.
2. RENEWS MARXIST CRITICISM of instability and waste
3. ADVOCATES PLANNING by an EXPERT BUREAUCRACY
4. Interventionism and vertical equity necessary
183
What is a key quote of Webb concerning capitalism's flaws?
'Unpredictable', 'unstable' and 'at odds with the equitable distribution of wealth'.
184
What is a key quote of Webb concerning planning?
'Economic development could be planned logically' by benevolent, democratically accountable governments.
185
What are 5 key pieces of context for Beatrice Webb?
1. From a wealthy background - insulated from capitalism's worst effects
2. Not quite a feminist, but sort of a feminist - rejected Joseph Chamberlain for being overbearing, but did not support female suffrage
3. Worked with cousin Charles Booth on a detailed survey of what life was like for the working class in late Victorian London
4. Married Sidney Webb
5. BRITISH - insulated from revolution
186
What are 5 organisations Webb was affiliated with?
1. Lancashire co-operative movement.
2. LSE.
3. New Statesman.
4. Labour Party.
5. Fabian Society.
187
What were Joseph Chamberlain's views?
'Gas and water' liberalism.
188
Was Webb actually from a working-class origin?
Not really. Sort of petty bourgeoisie, with a home maid, etc.
189
What are 3 views of Webb on human nature?
1. Individuals are shaped by their social and environmental conditions - rejected conservative essentialism
2. Capitalist society has warped human nature from its naturally gregarious state - no real development on Marxism here
3. Emphasis on the importance of positive intervention rather than self-emancipation
190
What are 3 views of Webb on society?
1. Society is a network of social relations and institutions which entrap individuals or emancipate them.
2. Strong supporter of the co-operative movement.
3. 'Condition of the Working Class in England' 1887 by Engels highlights the consequences of capitalism.
191
What are 3 views of Webb on the state?
1. Government intervention is necessary - central planning and an expert bureaucracy will function
2. Rejection of revolution - evolution not revolution
3. The state is not inherently capitalistic and therefore infiltration by a socialist party is a sensible idea
192
What are 3 views of Webb on the economy?
1. Trade unions are essential to represent workers' interests.
2. Collective ownership of industries is essential to economic progress.
3. Critical of capitalism and its wastefulness.
193
What are 3 quotes of Webb on revolution?
'Chaotic', 'unmanageable', 'counterproductive'.
194
What case study does Webb examine to justify her hesitancy for revolution?
The Russian Revolution.
195
What did Webb describe revolutions in general as?
'Upheavals marred by mayhem, violence and bloodshed'.
196
What are 2 reasons Webb viewed the state as something to be worked with?
1. More democratic than before; by 1900 roughly half of the male population could vote. Outcomes better, e.g. Factory Act 1874.
2. British - anti-revolutionary.
197
What word is used to describe the pace of Webb's reforms?
Gradualism.
198
What is the 'inevitability of gradualism'?
Webb's view that voters would inevitably elect socialist governments, for it is in their own interests, and continue to do so as gradual change is implemented
199
What does the Fabian Society take its name from and what does this tell us?
Quintin Fabius, a Roman general famed for his gradualist strategy.
200
What are 3 examples of British evolutionary/democratic/gradualist socialism?
1. Attlee - 2/3 of Labour MPs, including Attlee himself, affiliated to Fabians when elected in 1945
2. Tony Benn
3. Jeremy Corbyn and 2017-19 campaign of renationalisation
201
What are 3 arguments that socialism does require revolutionary change?
1. State rotten according to Marx and Engels
2. "False consciousness" - more than just legal system changes were needed
3. Inevitability argument e.g. Luxemburg and trade union action
202
What are 3 examples of evolutionary socialism in the Labour Party manifesto of 2019?
1. Nationalising rail, mail, water and energy.
2. Full-fibre broadband.
3. National Education Service to complement the NHS.
203
Why did the Labour Party come into existence?
Riot Act after Lister's Mill, Bradford, largest silk mill in the world, cut wages by 1/3. Huge strike, and the government banned rioters.
The unions had no political influence to stop this. Something had to be done
204
Was Keir Hardie from a working-class background?
Yes - grew up as a coal miner in Legbrannock and taught himself to read and write.
205
What is the Trade Union Congress and its link to the Labour Party?
An institution which unites trade union representatives in the UK
Member of Labour Party
206
How is Keir Hardie's Labour actually quite similar to Luxemburg's views (later encapsulated in the ISP)?
The trade union power and the idea that working class involvement in politics, at least in the beginning, was good
207
Who did Luxemburg draw on for her views on women?
Clara Zetkin.
208
How does Luxemburg quote the interrelationship between female inequality and capitalism?
Female inequality is only a 'link in the chain' keeping the proletariat down.
209
Why does Luxemburg express doubts about female suffrage? Quote
Being used by bourgeois women to enforce legally their continued oppression of the working class, both male and female
"parasites on the parasites of the people"
210
Why does Luxemburg think women are more politically engaged now than ever?
Due to capitalism and resultant female employment.
211
How does Luxemburg see the education of women?
They educate themselves - cites as examples all the trade union activity stoked by women
212
What is Webb's link to the suffrage movement?
Webb's brother-in-law, Leonard Courtney, was the main parliamentary supporter of women's suffrage.
213
Why did Webb initially express disinterest in the suffrage movement?
1. Single, propertied women
2. Did not seem hugely relevant - whilst she did care about female causes, she wasn't sure this would have any significant effect on labour organisation
214
What did Webb say about rights? Eval?
Didn't believe in the abstract rights of humanity, rather saw life as a "series of obligations"
Quite a conservative idea, but used here as a rejoinder to the suffrage movement and their insistence on natural rights
215
Does Webb think men and women are equal?
No. Emphasis on "series of obligations" and how they differ for men and women
216
Did Webb approve of suffrage?
Initially no, then yes. Argued against it in 1889, then for it in 1906.
217
Why might Webb's views on suffrage have changed?
Sidney Webb - he linked the suffrage to women's economic inequality and argued that suffrage was a root out of economic dependence and poor organisation in industry.
218
What did Webb believe about natural female roles and evidence?
Believed they did exist and should be preserved
E.g. Endowment of Motherhood as a Fabian policy
Condemnation of the competition equal opportunities would present
219
Can we describe Marx, Webb and Luxemburg as feminists? Why?
Marx yes, he is an equality feminist - clear emphasis
Luxemburg yes, though she would not consider herself a "feminist" - her focus is entirely on the class dimension and how that interacts with gender
Webb no. Does not seek the equal emancipation of women until 1906 and distrusts the idea of equal opportunities as creating competition and annulling the natural roles of women
220
Who was Luxemburg reacting against?
Lenin and his vanguard model.
221
What is Lenin's magnum opus?
1902 'What is to be Done?'.
222
What are 3 relevant contextual facts for Rosa Luxemburg?
1. Jewish immigrant to Germany, having being educated in Warsaw and subsequently expelled for revolutionary activities
2. Led the 1919 Spartacist Revolt in Berlin with Karl Liebknecht
3. Industrial context in Luxemburg's Germany, as well as the one-nation welfare state
223
Which party did Luxemburg join in Germany and how did she develop this?
SPD
Left the SPD to found the ISP with Karl Liebknecht in revolt at the SPD's gradualist tendency
224
What key element of Marxist philosophy does Luxemburg reject?
Historicism - the idea that revolution takes place post-industrialisation
She doesn't believe in waiting for this to happen
225
What are 3 views of Luxemburg on human nature?
Generally toeing a Marxist line
1. Reform or Revolution (1900) - confirmed Marx's argument that capitalism corrupted natural human fraternalism
2. People rational enough to obtain revolutionary consciousness independently and to subsequently overthrow the political system
3. Not as damaged as Marx alleged - believes that the discovery of working class consciousness will happen freely, leading to a natural and incontrovertible spontaneous revolution
226
What term describes the Marxist view of history?
Dialectical materialism.
227
3 views of Luxemburg on society?
1. Elitism and hierarchy must be driven out e.g. the revolution should not be led by a vanguard
2. Existing society is indefensible but split into classes, each of which has a unique identity
3. Under capitalism, the classes will always be in conflict
228
What is Luxemburg's magnum opus?
1900 'Reform or Revolution'.
229
What are 6 views of Luxemburg on revolution?
1. Rejection of evolutionary socialism and SPD gradualism
2. Rejection of the vanguard as a new form of elitism
3. Rejection of the dictatorship of the proletariat
4. Rejection of historicism
5. Should be driven by trade unions and spontaneous, will emerge once class consciousness reaches a certain point
6. Should engage with the state e.g. KPD should contest elections in order to promote its point
230
What word describes Luxemburg's view of revolution?
'Spontaneous'.
231
How did Luxemburg influence later Marxists?
Her demand to engage in politics in order to sow the seeds of a spontaneous revolution shaped neo-Marxist movements down the line
232
What are 3 views of Luxemburg on the state?
1. There should not be a dictatorship of the proletariat, only a democracy for all which would inevitably promote Marxism
2. KPD and other parties should interact with existing state apparatus to sow the seeds of the spontaneous revolution
3. Same criticism as Marx vis-a-viz state's purpose
233
What are 3 views of Luxemburg on the economy?
1. Capitalism is hugely wasteful and inefficient. Builds on the works of Marx to link this to imperialism
2. Should be a planned economy and democratically controlled factors of production
3. Capitalism is very resilient and spontaneous revolution is the only thing strong enough to destroy it
234
Why is Luxemburg popular nowadays?
She provides a defense of revolutionary politics.
235
Whilst socialism clearly defends gender equality in the industrial era, which ideology do the suffrage and women's movement take the most input from?
Liberalism.
236
3 examples of how gender inequality continued during the industrial era?
1. Legal inequality e.g. 22:00 curfew on wife beating and the "rule of thumb"
2. Educational inequality e.g. despite the establishment of women's only colleges at both Oxford and Cambridge, women couldn't get degrees at Cambridge until 1947
3. Still don't have the vote
237
How could we dichotomise women's experience of the Industrial period and why?
Working class women see themselves become more and more equal to men, but only because they are being forced into the workplace in order to make ends meet
Middle class women are increasingly being treated unequally to men, but by being ushered away from meaningful employment and education
238
3 examples of how gender inequality continued during the industrial era?
1. Legal inequality e.g. 22:00 curfew on wife beating and the 'rule of thumb'.
2. Educational inequality e.g. women couldn't get degrees at Cambridge until 1947.
3. Women still didn't have the vote.
239
How could we dichotomise women's experience of the Industrial period and why?
Working class women became more equal to men due to economic necessity, while middle class women faced increasing inequality by being excluded from meaningful employment and education.
240
5 contextual facts about Charlotte Perkins-Gilman?
1. Born into an upper-middle class family, but forced into poverty after her father left - VERY SIMILAR TO MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT
2. Found her first marriage oppressive, and disliked her husband Charles Stetson's insistence on traditional roles. Charles was an artist
3. Had a daughter before being prescribed the "rest cure" for what was probably postnatal depression
4. This is the era of hysterectomies, lobotomies, rest cures and tranquilisers - pseudo-scientific beliefs about female inferiority abound
5. Self-taught - emphasis on female self-education
241
What key piece of personal context do Wollstonecraft and Gilman share?
1. Being in poverty after her father abandoned the family - economic dependence on men
2. Being self-taught - importance of education and women's role in their own emancipation
242
What is Charlotte Perkins-Gilman's first work?
The poem 'In duty bound' which describes how women's lives are limited by their obligation to their husbands.
243
How did Perkins-Gilman's family influence her?
After her father left, she spent much time in the company of her aunts, one of whom was a suffragist and one of whom wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin
244
What ideology is Gilman?
Socialist feminist.
245
2 major works of Perkins-Gilman and what they concern?
1. 1892 The Yellow Wallpaper - about the rest cure.
2. The Herland trilogy - utopian feminist literature.
246
Evidence Perkins-Gilman was a socialist?
1896 travels to London for the International Socialist and Labour Congress, where she meets George Bernard Shaw, Beatrice and Sidney Webb and other leading socialists
247
What key movement is CPG associated with?
Utopianism.
248
Example of CPG's linked to utopianism?
Big fan of Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward (1888) about the utopia of the year 2000, and wrote Herland herself
249
Did CPG support women's suffrage?
Yes.
250
2 ways CPG supported women's suffrage?
1. Advocated for women's suffrage in front of the House Judiciary Committee in 1896.
2. Spoke publicly for the cause.
251
What is 'first-wave feminism'?
The initial movement which sought to gain equal POLITICAL rights, namely voting and property rights, and saw subsequent social equality as an inevitable consequence of this equalisation
252
3 views of CPG on human nature?
1. INDEPENDENCE IS KEY - Yellow Wallpaper 1892 - because women are denied independence, they are suffering. The person in the story wants to take the action required to get better, but is denied the means
2. Equal rationality, as Wollstonecraft had argued
3. Oppression is social, rather than natural
253
What quote is there to prove Wollstonecraft and CPG had similar views on human nature?
Equal view of female rationality - Wollstonecraft "mind has no gender" and CPG's "There is no female mind. The brain is not an organ of sex"
254
How does Yellow Wallpaper make a key case for female independence?
The protagonist tries to take positive action for her wellbeing but is stopped by the men around her.
255
3 views of CPG on society?
1. Communal living should replace the nuclear family, and professionals should be hired to raise children. Otherwise, women's unwaged labour will inevitably be used to entrench female inequality - Concerning Children 1900
2. Women were imposed in their roles by society e.g. A Protest against Petticoats 1887
3. Modern society rendered female dependence on men in relationships, facilitated by sexual dimorphism, unnecessary
256
CPG work where she outlines how domestic servitude becomes female inequality?
1898 Women and Economics and 1900 Concerning Children.
257
CPG work where she identifies the role of society in women's image of themselves?
A Protest against Petticoats 1887.
258
Why is historicism relevant to CPG?
It suggests society used to have an inferior role for women, which is changing as we approach an ideal society.
259
What is AQA's view of CPG's views on the state?
'No especially distinctive views.'
260
3 views CPG actually had on the state?
1. In the utopian Herland trilogy, she envisages a large role for the state, e.g. in providing education for a key character who transforms himself from an alcoholic to a university professor
2. State has a potential for good
3. Eugenicism (shared with George Bernard Shaw)
261
Where does eugenics come from for CPG?
Mainstream socialism, e.g. George Bernard Shaw in the UK.
262
4 views of CPG on the economy?
1. Socialist - ultimately believed in communal ownership e.g. communal childcare
2. But in the interim, female labour should be marketised, including the labour of married women on an equal basis to unmarried women
3. "Sexuo-economic" dependence came from sexual dimorphism, but is now redundant outside of the hunter-gatherer context
4. Female fulfilment was necessary to happiness, and this came from work, as postulated in The Yellow Wallpaper 1892
263
Was CPG an equality or a difference feminist?
Equality e.g. kids in these communal nurseries should be raised wearing the same clothes and playing with the same toys
264
The domestic servitude of women allowed men to...
Dominate the rest of the world e.g. run companies, become leaders etc.
265
3 views of CPG on the economy?
1. Lack of economic engagement by women leads to lack of self-fulfilment. The right to work outside the home must be extended to all women, particularly married women, who would no longer be expected to fulfil roles of economic servitude
2. Domestic industries should be marketised in order to monetise unwaged female labour
3. Women should be entitled to work on an equal basis to men
266
What is CPG's economic work?
Women and Economics 1898.
267
Full list of relevant works of CPG?
1887 A Protest against Petticoats
1892 The Yellow Wallpaper
1898 Women and Economics
1900 Concerning Children
268
What was Mill's view on divorce?
No fault divorce.
269
What overlap was there between JS Mill's views on feminism and CPG's?
1. Voting rights - both advocated, with CPG appearing before the House Judiciary Committee in 1896
2. Equal rights in marriage - JS Mill advocated no fault divorces, as did CPG
3. Economic welfare - both framed as an economic decision
270
Is Perkins-Gilman a liberal feminist?
It is a complicated one.
1. The exam board considers her a liberal feminist
2. The goal is for each woman to have the best opportunities
3. Similarities to Wollstonecraft e.g. equal rationality and education
But clear grounds for state intervention and support of communitarianism suggests socialism
271
3 examples of how education became more accessible to women over the course of the 19th century? Why is this significant?
1. Kensington Society founded 1865 - similar to Cercle Social, encourages debate
2. University of London begins admitting women in the 1860s, and Oxford and Cambridge open female colleges
3. 1878 London Medical School begins to admit female students
Education is a key cause of liberal feminists
## Footnote
Education is a key cause of liberal feminists.
272
Why does the increasing availability of education create inevitable pressure? How can we evaluate Wollstonecraft in this light?
Women now see the nature of their oppression more clearly and are more able to claim genuine equal merit with men.
This inevitability of equality is what Wollstonecraft proposed
273
What do all the first wave feminists share?
An emphasis on education.
274
Who was one of the main advocates of the New Zealand suffrage movement?
Mary Colclough, better known as Polly Plum.
275
Who influenced Mary Colclough?
JS Mill.
276
3 ways society, the state and economy have changed by 1900?
1. Industrial economy now a permanent reality
2. State power has expanded with one-nationism and socialist pressure
3. Society much more centralised, into platoons as Burke had imagined but much larger. Nationalism on the horizon
