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MBBS - Year 1 > Pathology - Fractures and Dislocations > Flashcards

Pathology - Fractures and Dislocations Flashcards

1
Q

Possible outcomes of a normal cell undergoes

A

Necrosis
Apoptosis
Mixture of necroptosis and pyroptosis

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2
Q

Pyroptosis

A

Mixture of pyrexia (release of IL-1) and apoptosis
Activation of inflammasome
Happens in infl

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3
Q

What can damage cells

A 
Oxygen deprivation 
Physical agents 
Chemical agents 
Infectious agents 
Immune agents 
Immune reactions 
Genetic abnormalities 
Nutritional imbalances
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4
Q

Physical agents that can damage cells

A

Mechanical trauma
Extremes of temp
Sudden changes in atmospheric pressure
Radiation

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5
Q

Reversible cell injury

A 
Cell swelling 
Fatty change 
Eosinophilia 
Changes to cell membrane 
Mitochondrial swelling 
Dilation of endoplasmic reticulum w/ detachment of ribosomes 
Chromatin clumping
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6
Q

Changes to cell membrane that counts `as reversible cell injury

A

Cell membrane blebbing/ blunting/ loss of microvilli

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7
Q

Cell adaptations

A

Reversible changes in the size, number, phenotype, metabolic activity or functions of cells in response to changes in their environments

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8
Q

Types of cell adaptations

A

Hypertrophy
Hyperplasia
Metaplasia
Atrophy

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9
Q

Hypertrophy

A

Increase in the size of cells that cause an increase in the size of the affected organ
Related to increased workload
May be physiological or pathological

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10
Q

Physiological hypertrophy

A

Can be seen in uterus during pregnancy

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11
Q

Pathological hypertrophy

A

Most commonly seen in myocardium - hypertension/ valvular heart disease

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12
Q

Hyperplasia

A

Increase in the no. cells in an organ/ tissue in response to a stimulus
Can only take place if the cells are capable of dividing

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13
Q

Which two adaptations can take place together

A

Hyperplasia and hypertrophy

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14
Q

Stimuli causing hyperplasia

A

Hormone

Growth factors

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15
Q

Metaplasia

A

Reversible change in which one differentiated cell type is replaced by another cell type

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16
Q

What is metaplasia an example of

A

An adaptive response where the replacement cell type is better able to withstand the adverse environment

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17
Q

What is metaplasia caused by

A

Reprogramming of stem cells

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18
Q

Dysplasia

A

If the stimulus causing metaplasia persists, disordered growth in the epithelium can occur —-> invasive carcinoma

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19
Q

Squamous metaplasia

A

Columnar cell replaced by squamous cell

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20
Q

Intestinal metaplasia

A

Squamous cells replaced by goblet cells

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21
Q

Atrophy

A

Reduction in the size of an organ or tissue due to a decrease in cell size (and size of organelles) and number
Autophagy is activated

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22
Q

What pathway is activated in atrophy

A

Ubiquitin-proteosome pathway

23
Q

Autophagy

A

Cell eating its own organelles to reduce nutrient demand to meet the supply

24
Q

Pathological hyperplasia

A

Excessive or inappropriate actions of hormones or growth factors acting on target cells
Drives mature cells or increases output of new cells from stem cells
Hyperplasia regresses if the stimulus is removed

25
Q

Pathological atrophy causes

A 
Disuse
Denervation 
Diminished blood supply 
Inadequate nutrition 
Loss of endocrine stimulation 
Pressure
26
Q

Disuse atrophy

A

Due to prolonged bed rest and can be accompanied by osteoporosis

27
Q

Denervation atrophy

A

Damage to nerves supplying a muscle

28
Q

Diminished blood supply causing atrophy

A

Atherosclerosis of blood vessels can cause atrophy

29
Q

Pressure atrophy

A

An expanding tumour can put pressure on blood vessels causing atrophy of tissues supplied by those vessels

30
Q

Irreversible injury

A

if the stimulus exceeds the ability of the cell to respond or adapt

31
Q

Necroptosis

A

Has features of both necrosis and apoptosis

32
Q

Inflammasome

A

A danger-sensing protein complex within the cytoplasm of the cell

33
Q

Necrosis

A

Accidental/ unregulated form of cell death
Damage to membranes – lysosomal enzyme digestion of cell
Leakage of cell contents causing inflammatory reaction
Always pathological

34
Q

What can necrosis be caused by

A

Ischaemia
Toxins
Infections
Trauma

35
Q

Mechanisms underlying cell injury in necrosis

A 
Depletion of ATP 
Mitochondrial damage 
Influx of calcium 
Accumulation of ROS 
Membrane permeability defect 
DNA and protein damage
36
Q

Influx of Ca in cell injury

A

Leads to depletion of ATP

Activates enzymes causing membrane, protein, nuclear and DNA damage

37
Q

Effects of ROS

A

Damage proteins, lipids and nucleic acids by attacking and modifying them

38
Q

ROS

A

Reactive Oxygen Species

39
Q

Apoptosis

A

A cell death pathway that’s induced by a tightly regulated suicide programme in which enzymes are activated that can degrade the cells own DNA and proteins and fragment cytoplasm

40
Q

Physiological apoptosis

A

Destruction of cells during embryogenesis
Involution following hormone withdrawal
Cell loss in proliferating cell population
Elimination of self-reactive lymphocytes
Control of the inflammatory response

41
Q

Apoptosis pathways

A

Intrinsic (mitochondrial) pathway

Extrinsic (death receptors initiated) pathway

42
Q

Intrinsic pathway of apoptosis initiator

A

Caspase 9

43
Q

What is the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis triggered by

A

Cell injury, DNA damage or decreased hormonal stimulation

44
Q

Caspases

A

Proteases which can breakdown cell proteins)

45
Q

Extrinsic (death receptor initiated) pathway initiator

A

Caspase 8

Caspase 10

46
Q

What is the extrinsic (death receptor initiated) pathway activated by

A

FAS ligand binds FAS death receptor (CD95) on the target cell, activating caspases

47
Q

Removal of apoptotic cells

A

Phosphatidylserine
Apoptotic cells secrete soluble factors which recruit macrophages
Apoptotic bodies get coated w. thrombospondin or bind C1q which attracts macrophages

48
Q

Causes for abnormal accumulation of substances

A

Inadequate removal,
Excessive production of an endogenous substance
Deposition of an abnormal exogenous material

49
Q

Steatosis

A

Fatty change

Caused by build-up of triglycerides, usually in hepatocytes

50
Q

Atherosclerosis

A

Cholesterol accumulation in macrophagses

51
Q

Dystrophic pathological calcification

A

Occurs when calcium is deposited in tissue which is injured or dead, calcium metabolism is normal

52
Q

Metastatic pathological calcification

A

Seen in association w/ hypercalcaemia
May be caused by increased parathyroid hormone
Vitamin D excess
Sarcoidosis

53
Q

Sarcoidosis

A

Disorder where macrophages accumulate in granulomas (round nodules) and these macrophages activate a Vit D precursor causing hypercalcaemia

54
Q

Pathological features of non-union

A

Malformed callus can undergo cystic degeneration

Becomes lined with synovial-like cells creating a false joint (pseudo-arthrosis)

MBBS - Year 1 (93 decks)

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