A & P Exam 4 Flashcards
(343 cards)
1
Q
The endocrine system works with the ____ system to maintain homeostasis.
A
nervous
2
Q
How does the endocrine system communicate with the rest of the body?
A
Hormones travel through bloodstream & act of specific target cells
3
Q
Reaction to stimuli is ____ and duration of effects is ____ compared to the nervous system.
A
slow
long
4
Q
Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands and secreted directly into blood vessels.
A
hormones
5
Q
A cell that has receptors for a particular hormone is referred to as the ___ of that hormone.
A
target
6
Q
Hormone secretion is usually controlled by what?
A
negative feedback system
7
Q
Some endocrine glands, such as ____ ____ and _____ ____ are under direct stimulation from the nervous system.
A
adrenal medulla
posterior pituitary
8
Q
Secretion of ____ and _____ from the adrenal medulla is stimulated by sympathetic nervous system.
A
epinephrine & norepinephrine
9
Q
Are these major or minor endocrine organs? Pituitary gland, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal gland, pancreas (islets), gonads.
A
Major
10
Q
Are these major or minor endocrine organs? Kidneys, stomach, small intestine, placenta, thymus, pineal body.
A
minor
11
Q
This endocrine gland is part of the diencephalon section of the brain. Its functions include appetite control, body temp regulation, control of wake-sleep cycles, controls activities of pituitary gland. Portal system of blood vessel links this with the anterior pituitary gland.
A
Hypothalamus
12
Q
What structure in the hypothalamus secrete releasing and inhibitory hormones into portal blood vessels?
A
Modified neurons
13
Q
Including secreting releasing & inhibitory hormones, what else does the hypothalamus secrete? (2)
A
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Oxytocin
14
Q
ADH & Oxytocin are transported to the ____ ____ for storage. They are released into the bloodstream by nerve impulses from the hypothalamus.
A
posterior pituitary
15
Q
The pituitary gland is also known as the ____, which means to grow beneath.
A
hypophysis
16
Q
This part of the pituitary gland is the most rostral portion. It is stimulated by hypothalamus and direct feedback from target organs and tissues to produce its hormones.
A
Anterior pituitary
17
Q
The anterior pituitary is also known as the
A
adenohypophysis
18
Q
This is the caudal portion of the pituitary gland. It does not produce any hormones; stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus.
A
Posterior pituitary
19
Q
The posterior pituitary is also known as the
A
neurohypophysis
20
Q
Growth hormone is released from ____ gland. It is also known as somatotropin and somatotropic hormone.
A
anterior pituitary
21
Q
Secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary is controlled by the ______ and ______ (somatostatin) from the hypothalamus.
A
growth hormone releasing hormone
growth hormone inhibitory hormone
22
Q
____ is the only pituitary hormone that does not function through a target gland but instead exerts its effects on almost all tissues of the body.
A
GH (growth hormone)
23
Q
This hormone: promotes growth in young animals, helps regulate metabolism of proteins, carbs, and lipids, increases protein synthesis in all cells of body, increases mobilization of lipids from storage in fat tissue and their breakdown for energy, decreases rate of glucose utilization.
A
GH
24
Q
GH decreases rate of glucose utilization, also called
A
anti-insulin effects
25
In short, ___ enhances body protein, uses up fat stores, conserves carbs.
GH
26
Growth Hormone deficiency; congenital deficiency usually due to destruction of somatotrophs by a cyst; primarily seen in German Shepherds; lack of growth
Pituitary dwarfism
27
Excess secretion of GH prior to closure of physis
Pituitary Gigantism
28
Excessive secretion of GH after closure of physis; most commonly a fuctional adenoma of the somatotropic cells in the pituitary; older male cats; increase in body size, diabetes due to anti-insulin effects of GH.
Acromegaly
29
Secreted by AP, helps trigger and maintain lactation. Production & release continues as long as the teat or nipple continues to be stimulated by nursing or milking.
prolactin
30
Secretion of prolactin from the AP is normally inhibited by what hormone from the hypothalamus?
Prolactin inhibitory hormone
31
When the lactating teat is stimulated, the hypothalamus secretes what hormone which stimulates the AP to release prolactin?
Prolactin-releasing factor
32
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) is also known as
thyrotropic hormone
33
This hormone secreted by the AP stimulates growth & development of thyroid gland & causes it to produce its hormones.
TSH
34
Secretion of TSH is regulated by feedback from the thyroid gland. It has direct effects on AP gland & through changes in _______ hormone produced by the hypothalamus.
thyrotropin-releasing hormone
35
This hormone secreted by the AP stimulates growth & development of the adrenal cortex & release of some of its hormones.
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
36
ACTH is regulated by feedback from the hormones of the adrenal gland to the (2)
hypothalamus & AP
37
ACTH can also be released quickly as a result of stimulation of the hypothalamus by
stress
38
To override the inhibitory feedback system, the hypothalamus sends a burst of _____ hormone to the AP causing ACTH to be released quickly.
corticotropin-releasing hormone
39
This hormone is secreted by the AP. In females, it stimulates oogenesis and stimulates cells lining the follicles to produce and secrete estrogens. In males, it stimulates spermatogenesis.
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
40
This hormone secreted by the AP completes process of follicle development in ovary, increasing amounts of estrogens feedback to AP & cause reduced production of FSH and increased production of ___.
```
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
LH
```
41
LH levels reach a peak when follicle is fully mature which usually causes
ovulation
42
After ovulation, LH stimulates cells in the empty follicle to multiply and develop into the
corpus luteum
43
The corpus luteum produces ___ hormones necessary for the maintenance of pregnancy.
progestin
44
In the male, LH stimulates ____ ___ within the testes to development and produce testosterone.
interstitial cells
45
This hormone secreted by the AP is associated with control of color changes in the pigment cells of reptiles, fish, and amphibians.
Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
46
Administration of artificially large amounts of ___ to higher mammals can cause darkening of the skin from melanocyte stimulation.
MSH
47
The posterior pituitary gland, also known as ____, develops from the embryo's nervous system & looks like nervous tissue under the microscope.
neurohypophysis
48
The PP stores what 2 hormones produced in the hypothalamus?
antidiuretic (ADH) and oxytocin
49
The PP periodically releases ADH & oxytocin into the bloodstream in response to ___ impulses from the hypothalamus.
nerve
50
This hormone secreted from the PP has it effects on the uterus, causing contraction of the myometrium at the time of breeding & at parturition; causes milk letdown.
Oxytocin
51
ADH helps prevent ____, loss of large quantities of water in the urine
diuresis
52
Receptors in the ____ detect changes in osmotic pressure of blood that result from dehydration/hemoconcentration.
Hypothalamus
53
ADH travels to the ____ and causes resorption of more water from urine and returns it to the bloodstream. It also causes vasoconstriction.
kidney
54
ADH deficiency; pituitary (lack of ADH) or nephrogenic (no response to ADH); PU/PD, inability to concentrate urine; modified water deprivation test; dDAVP (derivative of ADH), continuous access to water.
Diabetes insipidus
| insipid means tasteless
55
What stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroid hormone?
TSH
56
This gland consists of 2 lobes on either side of the larynx.
Thyroid gland
57
Thyroid hormone is produced in the ____ of the thyroid gland.
follicles
58
Each thyroid follicle consists of simple, cuboidal glandular cells surrounding a globule of thyroid hormone precursor called
colloid
59
What are the 2 thyroid hormones?
T3, triiodothyronine
| T4, tetraiodothyronine
60
Thyroid hormones have negative feedback on what 2 endocrine glands?
hypothalamus and pituitary
61
Which thyroid hormone is produced in greater abundance but converts to the other before producing effects on target cells.
T4
62
These are effects of what hormones: influences development & maturation of CNS; growth & development of muscles and bones; calorigenic effect - regulates the metabolic rate of all body cells; allows animal to generate heat & maintain constant internal body temp.
Thyroid hormones
63
Production of thyroid hormones increase with exposure to ____ and then increases metabolic rate to generate more heat.
cold
64
TH affects metabolism of proteins, carbs, and lipids much like ___ does. Encourages synthesis of proteins if adequate energy sources, encourages breakdown of lipids for energy, discourages using carbs as energy source.
GH
65
Deficiency of thyroid hormone
Hypothyroidism
66
Hypothyroidism is most commonly what type? Lymphocytic thyroiditis and idiopathic atrophy of the thyroid gland.
primary hypothyroidism
67
CSX of what? Lethargy, weight gain, cold intolerance, alopecia.
Hypothyroidism
68
DX of what disease? Free T4 by ED, T4, TSH, Csx
Hypothyroidism
69
TX of hypothyroidism
thyroid hormone supplementation
70
Excessive thyroid hormone
Hyperthyroidism
71
Etiology of hyperthyroidism: ___ or ____ of thyroid gland typically in middle aged to older cats.
hyperplasia or neoplasia
72
CSX of what disease? PU/PD, polyphagia, weight loss, v/d, tachycardia, hyperactive
hyperthyroidism
73
DX of what disease: T4, free T4, Csx
hyperthyroidism
74
TX for hyperthyroidism
antithyroid drugs, sx, radioactive iodine
75
What disease? lack of iodine>decrease T4>increase TSH> hyperplasia of thyroid gland
goiter
76
Besides T3 & T4, the thyroid gland also secretes
calcitonin
77
Calcitonin is produced by ____ (____) cells located between thyroid follicles.
C cells (parafollicular cells)
78
This thyroid gland secretion helps maintain blood calcium levels, prevents hypercalcemia by encouraging excess calcium to be deposited in the bones.
calcitonin
79
___ is involved in muscle contraction, blood clotting, milk secretion, and formation & maintenance of the skeleton
calcium
80
Small, paled nodules in, on, or near the thyroid glands.
Parathyroid glands
81
What hormone do the parathyroid glands produce?
parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathormone
82
This hormone helps maintain blood calcium levels and prevent hypocalcemia.
PTH
83
PTH prevents ___ by converting Vit D into its active form calcitriol, causes kidneys to reabsorb calcium, releases calcium from bones.
hypocalcemia
84
What is the active form of Vit D?
calcitriol
85
This causes intestines to absorb calcium from food and releases calcium from bones.
Calcitriol
86
____ __ is carried in the bloodstream to the liver, where it is converted into the prohormone calcidiol.
Vit D
87
Circulating calcidiol can be converted into ____, the biologically active form of vit D, either in the kidneys or by monocyte-macrophages in the immune system.
calcitriol
88
A decreased production of PTH by the parathyroid gland.
primary hypoparathyroidism
89
Primary hypoparathyroidism is ___ in dogs and cats.
rare
90
CSX of primary hypoparathyroidism are consistent with _____; weakness, seizures.
hypocalcemia
91
DX of primary hypoparathyroidism
measure serum PTH & ionized calcium
92
TX for primary hypoparathyroidism
calcitriol & calcium supplements
93
Neoplasia of the parathyroid gland; causes hypercalcemia.
Primary hyperparathyroidism
94
With progressive renal disease, renal synthesis of calcitriol is also reduced. This causes
renal secondary hyperparathyroidism
95
Commonly seen in reptile not getting enough calcium or Vit D>increases PTH> mobilized calcium from bones> rubber jaw
Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism (NSHP)
96
The adrenal glands consist of what 2 glands?
adrenal cortex
| adrenal medulla
97
Which organ are the adrenal glands located near?
kidneys
98
What are the 3 layers of the adrenal cortex?
Zona glomerulosa
Zona fasiculata
Zona reticularis
99
The adrenal cortex is under direction of which AP hormone?
ACTH
100
What type of hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex?
steroid hormones
101
What are the 3 main groups of steroid hormones released from the adrenal cortex?
Glucocorticoids, Mineralocorticoids, Sex hormones
102
What are the different types of glucocorticoids? (3)
cortisone, cortisol, corticosterone
103
These hormones produced by the adrenal cortex are under the direction of ACTH; have a hyperglycemic effect; also help maintain blood pressure & help the body resist the effects of stress.
Glucocorticoids
104
Glucocorticoids are secreted by which 2 layers of the adrenal cortex?
zona fasiculata & zona reticularis
105
Sex hormones are secreted by which 2 layers of the adrenal cortex?
zona fasiculata & zona reticularis
106
The adrenal cortex produces androgens and estrogens, which are __ hormones, in small amounts.
sex
107
Mineralocorticoids (e.g., aldosterone) are secreted by which layer of the adrenal cortex?
zona glomerulosa
108
ACTH has only a mild impact on regulating secretion of this adrenal cortex hormone.
mineralocorticoids
109
This adrenal cortex hormone regulates levels of important electrolytes (NA & K) in the body by: telling the kidneys to reabsorb NA & H2O follows; telling the kidneys to eliminate K.
Mineralocorticoids
110
Secretions of this adrenal cortex hormone are regulated by electrolyte concentrations, blood volume, arterial pressure, renal function, etc.
mineralocorticoids
111
This part of the adrenal gland develops from nervous tissue & resembles nervous tissue microscopically. It produces epinephrine & norepinephrine.
Adrenal Medulla
112
What is the adrenal medulla controlled by?
sympathetic autonomic nervous system
113
Excessive production of cortisol
hyperadrenocorticism
114
Hyperadrenocorticism in dogs
Cushing's
115
What disease: usually pituitary tumor, adrenal tumor, iatrogenic
CSX: PU/PD, polyphagia, panting, pot-belly, alopecia
DX: measure cortisol levels with ACTH stim test or low-dose dexamethasone suppression test
TX: trilostane - acts on adrenal cortex to block synthesis of steriods.
hyperadrenocorticism or Cushings
116
Hypoadrenocorticism is also called
Addison's
117
What type of hypoadrenocorticism: idiopathic atrophy of all layers of adrenal cortex resulting in deficiency of both mineralocorticoids and gludocorticoids.
Primary adrenocortical insufficiency
118
What type of hypoadrenocorticism: reduced secretion of ACTH resulting in deficiency of glucocorticoids only
Secondary adrenocortical insufficiency
119
CSX: lethargy, anorexia, vomiting
DX: electrolytes, ACTH stim test
TX: mineralocorticoid supplement +/- glucoorticoid supplement
Hypoadrenocorticism/Addisons
120
Hyperadrenocorticism in ferrets is do to an
excessive production of sex hormones
121
What disease: hyperplasia or neoplasia of adrenal cortex linked to early spay/neuter
CSX: alopecia, swollen vulva in females, prostatic cysts in males
DX: adrenal panel to evaluate levels of sex hormones
TX: adrenalectomy, Lupron, melatonin, deslorelin
hyperadrenocorticism in ferrets
122
This organ is located near the duodenum and has both exocrine and endocrine functions.
Pancreas
123
Groups of cells scattered throughout the pancreas with endocrine functions.
Islets of Langerhans (Pancreatic Islets)
124
Alpha cells produce
glucagon
125
Beta cells produce
insulin
126
Delta cells produce
somatostatin
127
This hormone is regulated mainly by blood glucose concentration. It raises blood glucose levels by stimulating liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose and by stimulating gluconeogenesis.
Glucagon
128
This hormone is regulated by blood glucose concentration. It lowers blood glucose levels by causing glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids to be absorbed into the body cells.
Insulin
129
This hormone secreted by the pancreas is the same as growth hormone inhibitory hormone. It is secreted when food is ingested. It inhibits secretion of insulin, glucagon, & GH; diminishes activity of the GI tract.
Somatostatin
130
This pancreatic hormone prevents rapid exhaustion of food, making it available over a longer period of time.
Somatostatin
131
Loss of beta cell function resulting in hypoinsulinemia. CSX: PU/PD, polyphagia, wgt loss. DX: CSX along w/persistent, fasting hyperglycemia & glucosuria. TX: insulin injections
Diabetes mellitus
132
Neoplasia of beta cells that causes increased insulin production. CSX: weakness, seizures from hypoglycemia. DX: hypoglycemia, hyperinsulinemia. TX: SX, corticosteriods.
Insulinoma
133
What organ produces erythropoietin?
Kidneys
134
This hormone stimulates bone marrow to increase production of RBCs.
erythropoietin
135
Production of erythropoietin is stimulated by
hypoxia
136
As RBC production increases, more O2 feeds back to kidneys and slows production of
erythropoietin
137
Kidney failure results in ____ because of kidneys' inability to produce erythropoietin.
anemia
138
The kidneys release ___ in response to decreased blood volume/blood pressure.
renin
139
Renin causes _____ to be converted to angiotensin I.
angiotensinogen
140
Angiotensinogen is produced by the
liver
141
Renin causes angiotensinogen to be converted to
angiotensin I
142
Angiotensin I is converted to angiotensin II by
angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
143
What causes the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone which causes the reabsorption of sodium from the kidneys.
Angiotensin II
144
Angiotensin II causes the adrenal cortex to release ___ which causes the reabsorption of sodium from the kidneys.
aldosterone
145
_____ causes the reabsorption of sodium from the kidneys, water follows sodium, therefore increasinng blood pressure.
Aldosterone
146
Angiotensin II also tells the posterior pituitary to release ___ thereby conserving water and increasing blood pressure.
ADH
147
____ is produced by G cells in the wall of the pyloric antrum.
Gastrin
148
Secretion of gastrin is stimulated by presence of ___ in the stomach.
food
149
Gastrin encourages muscular ___ of the stomach wall.
contractions
150
What 2 hormones are secreted by cells lining the small intestine?
Secretin and cholecystokinin
151
Secretion of ___ occurs in response to presence of acid in the duodenum.
secretin
152
Secretin stimulates the pancreas to secrete ___ to neutralize the acid. It also inhibits peristalsis of the stomach.
bicarbonate
153
______ stimulates the pancreas to release digestive enzymes into the duodenum in response to fats and proteins. It also inhibits peristalsis of the stomach.
Cholecystokinin
154
The placenta produces what 2 hormones to help support and maintain pregnancy?
estrogen & progesterone
155
The placentas of humans and horses release what hormone that makes fat stored in the mother's body available for use.
Chorionic gonadotropin
156
_____ extends cranially from the level of the heart up into the neck region along both sides of the trachea. It is large in young animals & atrophies later in life.
Thymus
157
___ plays an important part in the animal's developing immune system.
Thymus
158
The thymus secretes ____, a hormone that stimulates the development of T-lymphocytes.
thymosin
159
The pineal body secretes ___, a hormonlike substance that seems to affect moods and wake-sleep cycles. It may also play a role in the timing of seasonal estrous cycles in some species.
melatonin
160
These are hormonelike substances derived from unsaturated fatty acids and produced in a variety of body tissues (skin, intestine, brain, kidney, lungs, repro organs, eyes)
Prostaglandins
161
What prostaglandin causes rupture of the corpus luteum? Also called lutalyse.
PGF2alpha
162
_____ influence blood pressure, blood clotting, inflammation, GI, respiratory, reproductive & kidney function.
Prostaglandins
163
FSH>seminiferous tubules>
spermatogenesis
164
LH>interstitial cells>produce
androgens
165
The primary androgen is
testosterone
166
Testosterone has an overall ___ effect in that it stimulates buildup of proteins in muscle and bone.
anabolic
167
Ovaries are CONTROLLED by what 2 hormones?
FSH & LH
168
Ovaries PRODUCE what 2 hormones?
estrogens and progestins
169
Amount of estrogen produced by follicles ___ as follicles grow.
increases
170
Increasing estrogen levels cause the AP gland to ___ the production of FSH and ___ the production of LH.
reduce (FSH)
| increase (LH)
171
_____ occurs when LH level peaks or LH surge.
Ovulation
172
In induced ovulators, ___ causes the release of LH from the AP.
breeding
173
Corpus luteum produces several hormones collectively called
progestins
174
What is the principle progestin that helps prepare the uterus to receive the fertilized ovum and is needed to maintain pregnancy.
Progesterone
175
The ___ system is the single most important route of waste-product removal in the body.
urinary
176
____ removes nearly all the soluble waste products from the blood and transports them out of the body. Urea, salts, & other products
Urinary system
177
The urinary system is also a major route of elimination for excess water in the body. Normally, urine is about ___% water.
95%
178
What other ways are waste products eliminated?
Resp. system: CO2
Sweat glands: water & salts
Digestive: bile
179
What is the study of the kidney?
Nephrology
180
The following are ways kidneys maintain ____:
removal of waste products; fluid balance regulation; acid-base balance regulation; production of hormones; influence release of ADH from PP; influence release of aldosterone from cortex of adrenal gland.
homeostasis
181
Where are the kidneys in relation to the abdominal cavity?
retroperitoneal
182
In most domestic animals (except pig) the right kidney is more ___ than the left.
cranial (righty tighty)
183
The kidneys are somehwat mobile and are pushed caudally as the diaphragm contracts. The left kidney is more ___ than the right.
mobile (lefty loosey)
184
The outer fibrous connective tissue layer of the kidney
capsule
185
The indented area on the medial side of the kidney. Ureter, nerves, blood & lymph vessel enter & leave kidney.
Hilus
186
What species has an outwardly lobulated kidney?
cattle
187
Most kidneys are bean shaped except the right kidney of the horse is ___ shaped
heart
188
Medulla of the kidney has numerous pyramid-shaped areas giving the medulla a scalloped appearance.
multipyramidal (multilobular) kidneys
189
___ is a cuplike extension of the renal pelvis into which the medullary pyramids fit. In cattle this empties directly into the ureter.
Calyx
190
Which species has a smooth outer kidney but is multipyramidal?
pigs
191
Medullary pyramids fuse to occupy the entire inner area of the kidneys. Ex: dogs, horses, cats, sheep.
Unipyramidal (unilobular) kidneys
192
The basic functional unit of the kidney
nephron
193
The ___ is composed of a glomerulus surrounded by Bowman's capsule.
renal corpuscle
194
A "tuft" of capillaries within the renal corpuscle.
glomerulus
195
A double-walled capsule that surrounds in the glomerulus.
Bowman's capsule
196
The space between the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule is the
capsular space
197
The renal corpuscle filters ___ in the first stage of urine production.
blood
198
Fluid filtered out of blood in the renal corpuscle is called
glomerular filtrate
199
The renal corpuscle is located in the renal
cortex
200
What is the continuation of the capsular space of Bowman's capsule called?
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
201
This is the longest part of the tubular system of the nephron. It has a twisting path through the cortex.
PCT
202
Epithelial cells lining the PCT are ___ and have a brush border that increases surface area for reabsorption and secretion functions.
cuboidal
203
When glomerular filtrate enters the PCT, it is now called
tubular filtrate
204
The Loop of Henle continues from the PCT. The descending loop of henle descends into the ___ and makes a U-turn.
medulla
205
Epithelial cells in the descending Loop of Henle still have a
brush border.
206
Epithelial cells in the ascending Loop of Henle become ___ ____ and lose their ___ ____.
simple squamous
| brush border
207
The distal convoluted tubule (DCT) is a continuation of the ascending
loop of Henle
208
DCT from all nephrons in the kidney empty into
collecting ducts
209
This structure in the kidneys: carries tubular filtrate through the medulla to the renal pelvis; primary site of action of ADH; regulation of potassium & acid-base balance.
Collecting ducts
210
Collecting ducts are the primary site of action of what hormone?
ADH - antidiuretic hormone
211
Up to __% of the blood pumped by the heart goes to the kidneys.
25%
212
Every __-__ min, all the circulating blood in the body passes through the kidneys.
4-5
213
Arterioles called ____ ___ ___ carry blood into the renal corpuscle and continue as glomerular capillaries.
afferent glomerular arterioles
214
Glomerular capillaries filter some of the ___ out of the blood and put it in the capsular space of Bowman's capsule, now called glomerular filtrate.
plasma
215
Glomerular capillaries continue as ___ ____ ____ as they leave the renal corpuscle
efferent glomerular arterioles
216
The blood in the efferent glomerular arterioles is still arterial, ___ exchange hasn't taken place yet. The only place in the body where blood entering and leaving capillaries is oxygenated blood.
oxygen
217
Efferent glomerular arterioles divide to form the
peritubular capillaries
218
Tubular reabsorption and secretion takes place here. Oxygen transfer to the cells of the nephron also takes place here.
peritubular capillaries
219
Nerve supply to the kidneys is primarily from the ___ portion of the autonomic nervous system.
sympathetic
220
The sympathetic nervous system ___ the diameter of blood vessels to kidneys.
decreases
221
Is nerve supply essential for the kidney to function?
no
222
Glomerular capillaries contain many large ___ in capillary endothelium.
fenestrations
223
What forces plasma from the glomerulus out into the capsular space?
high blood pressure
224
Are fenestrations large enough to allow blood cells or large proteins to pass through?
No
225
How fast plasma is filtered through glomerulus. Depends on the rate of blood flow.
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
226
Abnormal amounts of protein in the urine can be used as an indicator of
glomerular damage
227
Glomerular filtrate contains waste products that need to be cleared from the body. Glomerular filtrate is considered to be ___ the body.
outside
228
____ is the mechanism to get useful substances in glomerular filtrate back into the body by way of the blood.
Reabsorption
229
About 65% of all tubular reabsorption takes place in the
PCT.
230
Substances to be reabsorbed pass out of the tubular lumen through or between tubular epithelial cells, then enter interstitial fluid and pass through endothelium into
peritubular capillaries
231
Sodium has to be actively transported across cell membranes. Sodium attaches to a ___ protein.
carrier
232
Glucose and amino acids attach to the same carrier protein and follow sodium into the cell by passive transport. This is called
sodium cotransport
233
The amount of glucose that can be reabsorbed by the proximal convoluted tubules.
Renal threshold of glucose
234
If the blood glucose level gets too high, the amount of glucose filtered through the glomerulus exceeds the amount that can be reabsorbed, and the excess is lost in the
urine
235
The renal threshold of glucose for dogs is
180 mg/dL
236
The normal blood glucose for dogs is
62-108
237
The renal threshold of glucose for cats is
240 mg/dL
238
The normal blood glucose for cats is
60-124
239
Sodium ions are also reabsorbed in the (2)
ascending loop of Henle
| DCT
240
Sodium ions are reabsorbed in exchange for hydrogen, ammonium, or potassium ions under influence of what hormone?
aldosterone
241
Magnesium is reabsorbed from the PCT, ascending loop of Henle, and the
collecting duct
242
Potassium and calcium reabsorption takes place in the PCT, ascending loop of Henle, and
DCT
243
Calcium moves through the epithelial cells under the influence of what hormone?
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
244
During reabsorption, water follows the sodium, glucose, amino acids, and chloride into the interstitial space and peritubular capillaries by
osmosis
245
Even though urea is a waste product, the body maintains a normal level of urea in blood, called
blood urea nitrogen (BUN)
246
Once water leaves the tubules during reabsorption, the concentration of other substances increases and they ____ diffuse out of the tubules.
passively
247
The excess of urea or other nitrogenous compounds in the blood. Elevated BUN/CREA
azotemia
248
Decreased blood flow to the kidneys due to dehydration, congestive heart failure and shock are causes of what type of azotemia?
prerenal azotemia
249
The inability of the kidney to adequately regulate urine production because of damage to the nephrons, i.e., toxins, inflammation, infections are causes of what type of azotemia?
renal azotemia
250
Obstruction that prevents urine from being expelled from the body (stones, blood clots, tumors) are causes of what type of azotemia?
postrenal azotemia
251
Waste products not filtered from the blood in the glomerular capillaries pass through the peritubular capillaries into the
tubules.
252
Secretion primarily occurs in the
DCT
253
Hydrogen, potassium, ammonium and urea are eliminated by
secretion
254
Some medications are eliminated from the body by secretion such as
penicillin and sulfonamides
255
When the tubular filtrate reaches the renal pelvis, it is considered
urine
256
Urine volume is determined by the amount of ___ contained in the tubular filtrate when it reaches the renal pelvis.
water
257
Urine volume is controlled by what 2 hormones?
ADH & aldosterone
258
____ (hormone) acts on the DCT and collecting ducts to promote water reabsorption.
ADH
259
____ increases reabsorption of sodium. (hormone)
aldosterone
260
ADH deficiency
Etiology: pituitary (Lack of ADH) or nephrogenic (no response to ADH)
CSX: PU/PD, inability to concentrate urine
DX: modified water deprivation test
TX: dDAVP, continuous access to water
diabetes insipidus
261
A continuation of the renal pelvis. Tube that exits the kidney at the hilus and connects to the urinary bladder.
Ureter
262
The ureters continually move urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder by
peristaltsis
263
_____ epithelium allows ureters to stretch as urine passes through them on its way to the bladder.
transitional
264
Ureters enter the urinary bladder at an ____ angle.
oblique
265
This functions to collect, store, and release urine. It is composed of a muscular sac and neck.
Urinary bladder
266
The urinary bladder is lined with ___ epithelium that stretches as the bladder becomes filled with urine.
transitional
267
Wall of the urinary bladder contains ____ muscle bundles that run lenghtwise, obliquely, and in a circular direction
smooth
268
Neck of the bladder extends caudally from the sac into the __ canal and joins the urethra.
pelvic
269
When the trigger point is reached, a spinal reflex returns a motor impulse to bladder muscles causing them to contract. This contraction gives the sensation of
having to urinate
270
____ control of the muscular sphincter around the neck of the bladder results in temporary control of urination.
Voluntary
271
Expulsion of urine from the urinary bladder into the urethra is called (2)
Micturition or uresis
272
The urethra is lined with ___ epithelium which allows it to expand.
transitional
273
The _____ urethra is shorter and straighter than the long, curved ____ urethra.
female
| male
274
The sphincter at the neck of the urinary bladder closes at the beginning of ____ to prevent semen from entering the bladder and mixing with urine.
ejaculation
275
What are the 4 orders in the Reptilia class?
Crocodylia, Squamata, Chelonia, Rhynocephalia
276
Alligators, caimans, and crocodiles are in which order?
Crocodylia
277
Snakes and lizards are in which order?
Squamata
278
Turtles, tortoises & terrapins are in which order?
Chelonia
279
These types of animals, including reptiles, are unable to generate body heat internally. Body temp depends on environmental temp. 2 exceptions: leatherback sea turtles & pythons
Ectotherms/Poikilotherms
280
Reptiles maintain body temps via _____ thermoregulation (basking, coiling).
behavioral
281
Reptiles' ability to thermoregulate depends on access to temperatures within the
preferred optimal temperature zone (POTZ)
282
This is the range of temperatures in which the animal can perform all necessary metabolic functions
preferred optimal temperature zone (POTZ)
283
Ectotherms regulate temp depending on
metabolic needs
284
Ectothermy allows many reptiles to survive on ___ amounts of food.
small
285
If temperatures are too ____, reptiles can suffer from digestive problems, immunosuppression, and other disorders.
low
286
If temps are too ___, reptiles are forced to maintain a high metabolic rate and may suffer from energy deficits.
high
287
Reptiles will undergo ____ or brumation when temps drop below POTZ.
hibernation
288
The epidermis of reptiles is made of distinct scales formed by a ___ of the epidermis and is relatively impermeable.
folding
289
This type of keratin on reptiles is soft, flexible, and found in the interscalar skin.
alpha keratin
290
This type of keratin on reptiles in rigid and found in scales.
beta keratin
291
The dermis of reptiles is dense connective tissue that contains blood & lymph vessels, nerves and
chromatophores.
292
The subcutaneous space in reptiles is _____, making SQ injections inadvisable.
limited
293
The process of shedding the skin is controlled by the
thyroid gland
294
Shed skin of reptiles is called
exuvia
295
The process of shedding the skin is called
ecdysis
296
An enzyme-containing ___ is secreted between old and new epidermal layers during ecdysis.
lymph
297
During ecdysis, skin color ___ and spectale opacifies.
dulls
298
The term for abnormal shedding of the skin is
dysecdysis
299
Causes of dysecdysis include (4)
low humidity, dehydration, underlying illness, lack of cage furniture
300
Tx for dysecdysis
proper husbandry, soaking
301
The iris of reptiles is made of skeletal muscle and is under ___ control.
Voluntary
302
Since the iris of reptiles is under voluntary control, ___ are not predictable.
PLR's
303
Snakes and some lizards have this clear, scale-like structure formed by the fusion of the upper and lower eyelids instead of eyelids.
Spectacle
304
The spectacle is ___ to topical medications
impermeable
305
Most reptiles have ____ developed extraocular muscles, with the exception of chameleons.
poorly
306
Chelonians have no ___ ___ so tears spill over the lid margin.
nasolacrimal duct
307
Most reptiles (exceptions: snakes & crocodilians) have ____ bones which help the eye maintain its shape.
scleral
308
Crocodilians are the only reptiles that have a ____ which help them see better in the dark.
tapetum
309
This structure is found in tuataras and some lizards. It is a rudimentary retina & cornea with no iris, lids, or musculature. It may play a role in hormone production & thermoregulatory behavior.
Parietal eye
310
The parietal eye is connected to the pineal body via the
parietal nerve
311
The location of the heart varies in reptiles. For ____, the heart is on midline just caudal to the thoracic girdle and ventral to the lungs.
chelonians
312
The location of the heart varies in reptiles. For most ____ the heart is within the thoracic girdle.
lizards
313
The location of the heart varies in reptiles. For ____ and some lizards, the heart is more caudal in the coelomic cavity.
Crocodilians
314
The location of the heart varies in reptiles. For ____, the heart is usually at junction of first & second third of the body length but is fairly mobile.
snakes
315
The heart of most reptiles has ___ atria and __ ventricle.
2 atria
| 1 ventrile
316
There are 3 regions within the ventricle that are functionally separate. What are they?
Cavum venosum
Cavum arteriosum
Cavum pulmonale
317
In times of ___ ____, reptiles can shunt blood away from the lungs.
oxygen deprivation
318
____ are the only reptiles that possess a four-chambered heart. It is very different from birds and mammals.
Crocodilians
319
When the vagus nerve of lizards is suddenly stimulated, it sets off a chain of events within the body, most notably a rapid reduction of BP and HR. This is called
vasovagal reflex
320
The vasovagal reflex is triggered by applying gentle pressure to both
eyeballs
321
Mature reptilian RBCs are different from mammalian in what 2 ways?
nucleated, oval
322
The WBC in reptiles that is analogous to neutrophils.
heterophils.
323
Because heterophils do not possess peroxidase & acid phosphatase which break down necrotic material, reptiles produce ___ pus instead of liquid material.
caseous
324
What are the different blood collection sites of reptiles? (5)
```
ventral coccygeal vein
dorsal coccygeal vein
jugular
subcarapacial sinus
cardiac puncture
```
325
Reptiles are capable of surviving long periods without breathing due to their large pulmonary volume, efficient ___ metabolism, and cardiac shunting capabilities.
anaerobic
326
Respiration in reptiles is driven by ___ levels in blood, as compared to CO2 levels in mammals.
O2
327
Reptiles do not have an epiglottis, only a ___ in the rostral portion of the oral cavity.
glottis
328
Paired ___ cartilages border the glottal opening and open during respiration
arytenoid
329
The only vocalizations of reptiles are hissing, grunting, and bellowing. This is because they do not have
vocal cords
330
A glottal keel is present in some species of snakes. This increases
volume of vocalizations
331
Tracheal rings are ___ in chelonians and _____ in lizards and snakes.
complete - chelonians
| incomplete - snakes & lizards
332
The ___ are analogous to alveoli in mammals. They are fixed structures (do not expand or contract) surrounded by capillaries.
faveoli
333
This lung type is a simple, saclike structure. The cranial portion is the site of gas exchange. The caudal portion is avascular and comparable to avian air sac. Snakes and some lizards have this lung type.
Unicameral
334
This lung type is present is chelonians, some lizards, and crocodilians. It has many compartments and possesses intrapulmonary bronchi.
Multicameral
335
This lung type is present in iguanas and chameleons. It has characteristics of both unicameral & multicameral lungs.
Paucicameral
336
Most snakes only have a single ___ lung.
right
337
There is no true ___ in reptiles that would separate the thoracic & abdominal cavity in mammals.
diaphragm
338
Since reptiles do not possess a true diaphragm, they have one cavity called
coelomic cavity
339
The single bone in the middle ear of reptiles is called
columella
340
The columella connects to the tympanum and the ____ bone.
quadrate
341
Since the columella articulates with the quadrate bone, it allows snakes to be very sensitive to ground vibrations transmitted through the
mandibles
342
Concerning feeding, snakes & crocodilians are strict
carnivores
343
Snakes & lizards have deeply forked tongues which function as particle delivery system for vomeronasal organ or _____ organ, an accessory olfactory organ.
Jacobson's
