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Anatomy & Physiology > CH 12 > Flashcards

CH 12 Flashcards

1
Q

Which two organ systems are primarily responsible for coordinating the other bodily systems so as to maintain homeostasis?

A

Endocrine System

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2
Q

Basic Steps of the nervous system maintaing homeostasis

A
  1. Information received by sensory receptors is transmitted to CNS
  2. Information is processed and an appropriate response is determined
  3. A command is issued to effectors such as muscles or glands
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3
Q

What are the 2 major anatomical subdivisions of the nervous system?

A

Central and Peripheral nervous systems

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4
Q

What is the knotlike swelling in a nerve where neuron cell bodies are found?

A

Ganglion

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5
Q

What part of the PNS carries signals from various receptors to the CNS?

A

Sensory division

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6
Q

What Two organ systems are dedicated to internal coordination, communication between the other systems, and maintaining the overall homeostasis of the body?

A

They are the endocrine system, which communicates by means of hormones, and the nervous system which sends quick electrical and chemical messages from cell to cell.

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7
Q

Taken together, the sensory and motor subdivisions make up which of the following?

A

Peripheral nervous system

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8
Q

Where do sensory (afferent) neurons send their signals?

A

To the brain and spinal cord

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9
Q

The motor division of the PNS is further divided into what two categories?

A

Somatic motor division , carries signals to skeletal muscles
Visceral motor division (ANS) , carries signals to glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle

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10
Q

Which term is another name for the autonomic nervous system?

A

Visceral Motor Division

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11
Q

The sensory division of the PNS is divided into what two categories?

A

Somatic sensory division, carries signals from receptors in the skin, muscles, bones, and joints
Visceral sensory division, carries signals from organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities

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12
Q

Which division inhibits digestion?

A

Sympathetic , further division of Visceral motor division (ANS) , arouses body for action

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13
Q

Which division of the PNS carries signals from the CNS to glands and muscle cells?

A

Motor

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14
Q

The visceral motor division of the PNS is also called the autonomic division. What are the functions of this division?

A

Stimulating smooth muscle, accelerating or decreasing heartbeat, controlling gland secretion

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15
Q

Which terms refers to the part of the PNS that carries signals from various receptors to the CNS?

A

Sensory division

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16
Q

What are the two subdivisions of the ANS?

A

Sympathetic division, arouses the body for action and inhibits digestion
Parasympathetic division, calms body and promotes digestion

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17
Q

Sensory, association and motor are the three classes of what?

A

Neurons

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18
Q

The motor division is also called?

A

Efferent division

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19
Q

Neurons that convey information to the CNS are called sensory neurons or?

A

Afferent neurons

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20
Q

Which term is another name for the autonomic nervous system?

A

Visceral motor division

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21
Q

Which fundamental physiological property of neurons allows them to send signals quickly over long distances?

A

conductivity

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22
Q

What are the effectors of motor neurons?

A

muscle and gland cells

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23
Q

3 functional classes of neurons

A

Sensory neurons, motor neurons, interneurons

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24
Q

What are the major cytoplasmic inclusions in a neuron?

A

glycogen granules, melanin, lipid droplets, lipofuscin (golden brown pigment produced when lysosomes degrade worn-out organelles. Also called “wear and tear granules” , most abundant in old neurons.

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25
Q

Which type of neuron lies entirely within the CNS and carries out the integrative function of the nervous system?

A

Interneuron, they process store and retrieve info and make decisions. Make up about 90% of neurons in the body

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26
Q

Which term is used to describe motor neurons because they send signals away from the CNS and out to muscle and gland cells?

A

Efferent

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27
Q

Which term applies to the small swellings at the distal end of the axon of a neuron that contain synaptic vesicles?

A

Axon terminals

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28
Q

What organelles are found inside the cell body (soma) of a mature neuron?

A

Rough ER, Nucleus, Mitochondria

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29
Q

What are the structural categories of neurons?

A

Unipolar, bipolar, anaxonic, and multipolar

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30
Q

The processes of a neuron that usually receive signals from other neurons are called?

A

Dendrites

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31
Q

Neurons with numerous dendrites and a single axon are structurally classified as?

A

Multipolar

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32
Q

Axon Hillock

A

A mound located on one side of the soma from which the axon originates

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33
Q

Axoplasm

A

Cytoplasm of the axon

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34
Q

Axolemma

A

Plasma membrane of the axon

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35
Q

Axon collateral

A

Branch the originates from an axon

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36
Q

Neurons that have one axon and one dendrite, such as olfactory cells, certain neurons of the retina, and sensory neurons of the inner ear, are classified as?

A

Bipolar

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37
Q

At its distal end, an axon has an extensive complex of fine branches called what?

A

Terminal arborization

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38
Q

Neurons with a single process extending from the soma, such as the neurons that carry sensory signals to the spinal cord, are classified structurally as ______ neurons.

A

Unipolar

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39
Q

Neurons that have multiple dendrites but no axons, and which do not produce action potentials, are called ______ neurons.

A

Anaxonic

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40
Q

Axonal Transport

A

the two-way passage of proteins, organelles, and other materials along an axon

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41
Q

2 different kinds of axonal transport

A

Anterograde transport, movement away from the soma down the axon
Retrograde transport, movement up the axon toward the soma

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42
Q

Motor protein used in Anterograde transport

A

Kinesin

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43
Q

Motor protein used in Retrograde transport

A

Dynein

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44
Q

What is the most common structural type of neuron?

A

Multipolar

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45
Q

Describe Slow Axonal Transport

A

Works in a stop and go fashion, used to renew worn-out axoplasmic components in mature neurons

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46
Q

Functions of Neuroglia

A

They bind neurons together and provide a supportive scaffold, they protest the neurons and help them function

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47
Q

Satellite Cells

A

In the PNS; surround somas of neurons in ganglia, provide electrical insulation, regulate chemical environment of neurons

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48
Q

Schwann Cells

A

In the PNS; form neurilemma around all PNS fibers and myelin around most of them; aid in regeneration of damaged nerve fibers

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49
Q

Ependymal Cells

A

In the CNS; line cavities of the brain and spinal cord; secrete and circulate CSF

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50
Q

Microglia

A

In the CNS; phagocytize microorganisms, foreign matter, and dead nervous tissue

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51
Q

Which glial cell produces and helps circulate cerebrospinal fluid?

A

Ependymal Cells

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52
Q

Which type of transport, fast or slow, is used to move mitochondria, synaptic vesicles, and small molecules such as glucose toward the distal end of an axon?

A

Fast, anterograde axonal transport

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53
Q

What is the approximate ratio of glial cells to neurons?

A

10 to 1

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54
Q

Neuroglial cells that act as macrophages within the CNS are ______.

A

Microglia

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55
Q

What neuroglial cell is found in the peripheral nervous system?

A

Satellite Cell

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56
Q

Which type of cell plays a role in the establishment of the blood-brain barrier?

A

Astrocyte

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57
Q

In the CNS, myelin is produced by glial cells called?

A

Oligodendrocytes

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58
Q

What two types of neuroglia are found only in the peripheral nervous system?

A

Schwann cells and satellite cells

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59
Q

Can slow axonal transport be either anterograde or retrograde?

A

No, it is always anterograde

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60
Q

What are the functions of astrocytes?

A

Secrete nerve growth factors, form blood-brain barrier, regulate chemical composition of tissue fluid, convert blood glucose to lactate for neurons to use for fuel

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61
Q

Which type of glial cell produces the myelin sheath in the PNS?

A

Schwann cell

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62
Q

What term refers to the thick outermost coil of a Schwann cell?

A

Neurilemma

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63
Q

What term refers to the segment of an axon between the axon hillock and the first glial cell?

A

Initial segment

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64
Q

Slow axonal transport is always anterograde. What about fast axonal transport?

A

It ca be either anterograde or retrograde

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65
Q

The region that plays an important role in initiating a nerve signal and is formed by the axon hillock and the initial segment is the ______.

A

Trigger zone

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66
Q

The myelin sheath is composed mostly of which of the following?

A

Lipids

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67
Q

What term refers to the gaps between segments of myelin along an axon?

A

Nodes of Ranvier

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68
Q

Are Unmyelinated nerve fibers (axons) in the PNS are enveloped in Schwann cells?

A

YES. Although the Schwann cell’s plasma membrane does not spiral repeatedly around the axon as it does when forming a myelin sheath, it does fold once around each axon to form the neurilemma.

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69
Q

What term refers to the outermost layer of myelin, containing the nucleus and cytoplasm of the Schwann cell?

A

Nurilemma

70
Q

What are the factors that influence the speed of nerve signal conduction?

A

Presence of Myelin and diameter of axon

71
Q

In order for a peripheral nerve fiber to regenerate what must it have?

A

The soma and at least some of the neurilemma intact

72
Q

Between the nodes of Ranvier are myelin-covered segments of axon encircled by Schwann cells. What term refers to these segments?

A

Internodes

73
Q

What type of glial cell aids in regeneration of damaged peripheral nerve fibers by forming a regeneration tube to help reestablish the former connection?

A

Schwann cells

74
Q

How will the speed of signal conduction of a neuron with a large diameter, myelinated axon compare to a neuron with a small diameter, unmyelinated axon?

A

Signal conduction will be faster because of myelination even though the diameter is larger

75
Q

Stages of Regeneration of a Nerve Fiber

A
  1. Degeneration of axon and myelin distal to injury
  2. Swelling of soma; dispersal of Nissl bodies
  3. Sprouting of axon growth processes
  4. Growth process enters regeneration tube
  5. Reestablishment of synaptic contact
76
Q

What regenerates faster, damaged nerve fibers in the CNS or the PNS?

A

Damaged nerve fibers in the CNS CANNOT regenerate, only nerve fibers in the PNS

77
Q

What best describes an electrical current?

A

The movement of charged particles like ions

78
Q

What term is used to refer to a cell membrane across which there is a separation of electrical charge, so that one side is more positive and the other side is more negative?

A

Polarized

79
Q

What term refers to the voltage difference (electrical potential) across the plasma membrane of a neuron when it is at rest and not engaged in electrical signaling?

A

Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)

80
Q

Electrical currents in neurons are due primarily to the flow of what through gated channels?

A

Ions like sodium and potassium

81
Q

3 factors that contribute to the formation of the negative RMP

A
  1. There is a higher concentration of K in the intracellular fluid compared to the extracellular fluid
  2. Outward K diffusion causes pos and neg charges to accumulate on either side of the membrane
  3. Open leak channels in the plasma membrane allow K to diffuse across the membrane down its concentraion gradient
82
Q

What term refers to the flow of charged particles from one point to another?

A

Current

83
Q

What has the greatest influence on the RMP, Na or K? Why?

A

K (potassium) because the plasma membrane is more permeable to K than any other ion

84
Q

What contributes to the development of the resting membrane potential in neurons?

A

K is more concentrated in the ICF than in ECF. K flows freely out of the cell down its concentration gradient. As the ICF grows increasingly neg and neg membrane potential starts

85
Q

Is Na more concentrated in ECF or ICF?

A

It is about 12x more concentrated in ECF than ICF

86
Q

What creates electrical currents in neurons?

A

Movement of ions through channels

87
Q

Function of Na-K pump

A

It moves 3 Na out of the cell and 2 K into the cell, helps maintain the proper ion distribution across the membrane to achieve RMP
Accounts for about 70% of energy (ATP) required by nervous system

88
Q

A shift in membrane voltage to a value that is more negative than the resting membrane potential is called?

A

Hyperpolarization

89
Q

Properties of Action Potentials

A

All or none, nondecremental (signal maintains amplitude) , Self-propagating

90
Q

What term refers to the upward change in membrane potential during an action potential?

A

Depolarization

91
Q

Describe voltage-gated Na and K channel activity at RMP

A

Both types of voltage-gated channels are closed

92
Q

Describe voltage-gated Na and K channel activity when Depolarization begins

A

Voltage-gated Na channels open; voltage gated K channels open more slowly

93
Q

Describe voltage-gated Na and K channel activity when Repolarization begins

A

Voltage gated Na channels inactive, voltage gated K channels remain open longer

94
Q

Do Action potentials occur only where there are voltage-gated ion channels?

A

Yes, if a local potential arrives at the trigger zone where the voltage-gated channels are more abundant, it can generate the action potential

95
Q

What term refers to the period of time after a nerve cell has responded to a stimulus in which it cannot be excited by a threshold stimulus?

A

Refractory period

96
Q

During which part of the action potential do most voltage-gated sodium channels open?

A

Depolarization

97
Q

Properties of the Absolute Refractory period

A

It occurs during the depolarization and repolarization phases of the action potential, no stimulus of any strength will trigger a new action potential, it refers only to a small patch of membrane; other parts of the neuron can still be stimulated while a small area of it is refractory

98
Q

What does The all-or-none law of action potentials state?

A

A neuron will fire at maximum voltage if a stimulus depolarizes it to threshold

99
Q

describe signal conduction in unmyelinated axons

A

a wave of depolarization opens more voltage gated channels immediately distal to the action potential

100
Q

Saltatory conduction refers to what term?

A

Leaping

101
Q

Properties of signal conduction along myelinated fibers

A

Action potentials occur only at the nodes of ranvier, there are few voltage gated ion channels at the myelin-covered internodes and many channels at the nodes of ranvier, ions can be exchanged with the ECF ONLY at the nodes of ranvier

102
Q

At a synapse, the neuron that releases neurotransmitter is the ______ neuron.

A

presynaptic

103
Q

An axon contacts the dendrite of another neuron. What type of synapse is this?

A

Axodendritic

104
Q

In electrical synapses, electrical signals move quickly from cell to cell through what?

A

gap junctions

105
Q

At a synapse, the neuron that responds to the neurotransmitter is the ______ neuron.

A

postsynaptic

106
Q

Properties of Neurotransmitters

A

They bind to receptors and alter the physiology of the postsynpatic cell, they are synthesized by presynaptic neurons, they are released in response to stimulation

107
Q

Which scientist conclusively demonstrated that neurons communicate by releasing chemical messages?

A

Otto Loewi

108
Q

Neurotransmitters that are classified as amino acids

A

Glutamate, GABA, aspartate, glycine

109
Q

In myelinated axons, does the signal conduction move faster through the internodes or through the nodes of ranvier?

A

through the internodes!

110
Q

Neurotransmitters that are classified as monoamines (!)

A

Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and histamine. Subdivision catecholamines = epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine

111
Q

Chemical Categories of Neurotransmitters

A
  1. Acetylcholine
  2. Amino acid
  3. Monoamines (biogenic amines)
  4. Purines (ATP)
  5. Gases
  6. Neuropeptides (2 to 40 amino acids)
112
Q

What neuropeptides act as analgesics (pain relievers)?

A

Enkephalins

113
Q

What term refers to a synapse that releases acetylcholine from the presynaptic axon terminal?

A

Cholinergic

114
Q

Some neurotransmitters can have either excitatory or inhibitory effects depending on what?

A

The type of receptors on the postsynaptic cell

115
Q

At a GABA-ergic synapse, the postsynaptic receptor for the GABA neurotransmitter is which type of channel?

A

Chloride

116
Q

Which group of neurotransmitters are synthesized from amino acids by removal of the -COOH group?

A

Monoamines!

117
Q

Order of events in an adrenergic synapse after norepinephrine binds to its receptor

A
  1. G protein dissociates from receptor protein
  2. G protein binds to adenylate cyclase
  3. Adenylate cyclase is activated
  4. ATP is converted to cycilc AMP by adneylate cyclase
  5. Cyclic AMP induces multiple effects in the cell
118
Q

Order of events at a cholinergic excitatory synapse after signal arrives

A
  1. Opening of calcium gates in synaptic knob as nerve signal arrives
  2. Exocytosis of ACh; diffusion across synaptic cleft
  3. Binding of ACh to receptors on postsynaptic neuron
  4. Opening of sodium gates on post-synaptic membrane allowing influx of sodium
  5. Depolarization of postsynaptic plasma membrane
119
Q

Stimulation of the postsynaptic neuron will end when nerve signals stop arriving at the presynaptic axon terminal or when what else occurs?

A

neurotransmitter is removed from post synaptic receptors

120
Q

GABA has an inhibitory effect on postsynaptic neurons because it does what?

A

opens chloride channels

121
Q

What term describes the ability of neurons to process information, store and recall it, and make decisions?

A

neural integration

122
Q

Neural integration is based on the combining together of what?

A

postsynaptic potentials

123
Q

Factors that would cause postsynaptic stimulation to end

A

Diffusion of neurotransmitter from the synaptic cleft into the ECF
Reuptake of neurotransmitter into the presynaptic knob
Cessation of signals in the presynaptic nerve fiber
Enzymatic degradation of neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft

124
Q

When do EPSPs usually occur?

A

When sodium channels open (bringing membrane potential to threshold)

125
Q

Do neurons with more synapses have greater information-processing capability?

A

Yes, the chemical synapes are the decision making devices and the more that are present, the more information-processing and decision making that is possible

126
Q

Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials is usually due to the opening of which type of ion channels?

A

Chloride or potassium

127
Q

Which neurotransmitters are excitatory to some cells and inhibitory to others, depending on the type of receptors on the target cells?

A

Acetylcholine and Norepinephrine

128
Q

When a single synapse generates EPSPs so quickly that each is generated before the previous one fades, what is this process called?

A

Temporal Summation

129
Q

Which neurotransmitters produce IPSPs?

A

Glycine and GABA

130
Q

When EPSPs from several synapses add up to threshold at the axon hillock, this process is called what?

A

Spatial Summation

131
Q

The nervous system must interpret quantitative and qualitative information about its environment, thus it converts information to a meaningful pattern of action potentials. This process is called neural…?

A

Coding

132
Q

Firing additional neurons as a stimulus becomes stronger is an example of?

A

Recruitment

133
Q

What term refers to the conversion of stimulus information into a meaningful pattern of action potentials?

A

Neural coding

134
Q

Different sensory receptors in the skin respond to different types of stimuli. The brain can infer the type of stimulus detected by which nerve fibers are activated. What is this called?

A

Labeled line coding

135
Q

Principal types of neural circuits

A

Parallel after-discharge circuit, reverberating circuit, diverging circuit, converging circuit

136
Q

A single motor neuron stimulating hundreds of skeletal muscle cells is an example of which type of circuit?

A

Diverging circuit

137
Q

What is the role of neural pools in the CNS?`

A

To process information

138
Q

The respiratory center of the brain receives input from other parts (i.e from receptors for blood chemistry in arteries and stretch receptors in the lungs) to set a pattern of breathing. This is an example of which type of circuit?

A

Converging

139
Q

The ability of a neuron to enhance the effect of another neuron is called what?

A

Presynaptic facilitation

140
Q

In a which type of circuit will one input signal cause a prolonged and repetitive output because a neuron late in the circuit restimulates a neuron earlier in the circuit?

A

Reverberating

141
Q

The pathway of neurons within a neural pool is called its what?

A

Neural circuit

142
Q

The ability of synapses to change is called synaptic plasticity. Which term refers to the neuronal pathways formed during learning?

A

Memory traces

143
Q

Why would the synapses of a memory trace undergo synaptic potentiation?

A

To allow easier signal transmission along the pathway

144
Q

Which type of memory is important as you read (e.g. remembering the previous words in a sentence)?

A

Immediate memory

145
Q

What type of output will occur when a parallel after-discharge circuit is stimulated?

A

Output will last longer than the stimulus lasts

146
Q

Looking up a new phone number and then dialing it from memory utilizes which type of memory?

A

Working memory

147
Q

Making it easier to transmit signals across a synapse is called?

A

Synaptic Facilitation

148
Q

What type of stimulation is caused by rapid, repetitive signals arriving at a synaptic knob, causing progressively larger quantities of calcium to accumulate and leading to synaptic facilitation?

A

Tetanic Stimulation

149
Q

Synapses are not fixed for life. In response to experience, they can be modified to make transmission easier or harder. The ability of synapses to change is called synaptic…?

A

Plasticity

150
Q

Synapses in a certain pathway can be modified to allow signals to travel more easily across “trained” synapses. Which term refers to the process of making transmission easier?

A

Potentiation

151
Q

Memories lasting for a few hours, such as recalling an incident earlier in the day, may be due to which of the following?

A

Posttetanic potentiation

152
Q

Immediate memory, which is the ability to hold something in mind for a few seconds, might be based on activity in which type of neural circuit?

A

Reverberating

153
Q

Which type of memory can store the most information?

A

Long-term

154
Q

Which type of memory allows you to remember things from up to a few hours ago?

A

Short-term

155
Q

2 types of long term memory

A

Explicit (declarative) and implicit (emotional & procedural) memory

156
Q

Explicit (declarative) memory

A

Retention of facts that can be put into words - numbers, names ,dates, etc. You must think to remember these things

157
Q

Implicit (emotional/procedural) memory

A

the memory of things that come reflexively or unconsciously like emotional memories and procedural memories - retention of motor skills like how to tie shoes, play the piano, etc

158
Q

Which may be the basis for learning and long-term memory at the neuronal level?

A

Long-term potentiation

159
Q

Memories lasting for a few hours, such as remembering what someone said to you earlier in the day may involve posttetanic potentiation. This occurs because of which of the following?

A

Calcium remains elevated in the synaptic knob and causes a later signal to release a large burst of neurotransmitter

160
Q

Symptoms of Alzheimer disease

A

Reduced attention span, loss of the ability to talk or eat, memory loss, deterioration of personality

161
Q

Parkinson disease is due to the progressive degeneration of dopamine-releasing neurons in which brain area?

A

Substantia nigra

162
Q

Long-term potentiation may be involved in long term memory. What are the molecular changes that occur in long term potentiation?

A

The release of nitric oxide which triggers more glutamate release, binding of glutamate to NDMA receptors, Entrance of calcium into the dendrite

163
Q

Alzheimer disease affects about what percentage of the US population over the age of 65?

A

11%

164
Q

Common symptoms of Parkinson disease

A

Progressive loss of motor function, slurred speech, change in gait; smaller and slower steps

165
Q

Which disease is associated with the shrunken folds of cerebral tissue, neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques containing beta-amyloid protein?

A

Alzheimer disease

166
Q

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

A

A disease of the myelin sheath. The oligodendrocytes and myelin sheath of the CNS deteriorate and are replaced by hard scar tissue. Nerve conduction is disrupted causing a range of symptoms like double vision, blindness, tremors, numbness, or speech defects. Many people can live with it for decades

167
Q

Tay-Sachs

A

Hereditary disorder seen mainly in infants of eastern european jewish heritage. Results from abnormal accumulation of glycolipid GM2 (ganglioside) in the myelin sheath. Disrupts nerve signal and causes blindness, dementia, and loss of coordination. Most die by age 3 or 4.

168
Q

Electrical Potential

A

Difference in concentration of charged particles from one point to another

169
Q

What causes hyperpolarizatino?

A

Because K channels stay open slightly longer than Na channels therefore slightly more K leaves the cell and sodium gates are closed.

170
Q

What is the nerve signal?

A

A traveling wave of excitation produced by self-propagating action potentials

Anatomy & Physiology (10 decks)

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