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BIO225 > Ch. 49 Chemical Signals in Animals > Flashcards

Ch. 49 Chemical Signals in Animals Flashcards

0
Q

endocrine system

A

gland & tissues that produce/secrete hormones into the bloodstream

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1
Q

hormone

A

any of many different signaling molecules that circulate throughout the plant or animal body

  • can trigger characteristic responses in distant target cells @ very low concentrations
  • controlled
  • big size
  • specific function
  • result in longer response than the action potential of the CNS
  • long lasting effect
  • chemical signal
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2
Q

animal chemical signals

A

1) present in extremely low concentrations

2) have enormous effects on their target cells

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3
Q

properties of electrical impulses

A

1) short-term effect

2) fast response

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4
Q

major categories of chemical signals

A
  • grouped based on effect produced on cell/organ
    1) autocrine signals
    2) paracrine signals
    3) endocrine signals
    4) neural signals
    5) neuroendocrine signals
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5
Q

autocrine signal

A

a chemical signal that affects the same cell that produced/released it

(ie) cytokines

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6
Q

cytokine

A

(autocrine) any of a diverse group of signaling proteins
- secreted largely by cells of the immune system
- stimulates leukocyte production
- recruits cells to site of infection, tissue repair & fever
- FCN: regulate the type, intensity & duration of an immune response
- amplify the response of a cell to a stimulus

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7
Q

paracrine signal

A

a chemical signal that diffuse locally& affects neighboring cells

(ie) insulin, glucagon & somatostatin

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8
Q

insulin

A

a peptide hormone produced in pancreas in response to HIGH levels of GLUCOSE in blood

  • enables cells to absorb glucose
  • coordinates synthesis of fats, proteins & glycogen
  • paracrine signal
  • produced by islets of Langerhan
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9
Q

glucagon

A

a peptide hormone produced by the pancreas in response to LOW blood GLUCOSE

  • raises blood glucose by triggering breakdown of glycogen & stimulating gluconeogenesis
  • paracrine signal
  • produced by islets of Langerhan
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10
Q

somatostatin

A

a hormone secreted by the pancreas & hypothalamus that inhibits the release of several other hormones

  • paracrine signal
  • produced by islets of Langerhan
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11
Q

islets of Langerhans

A

cells in the pancreas that produces insulin, glucagon & somatostatin

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12
Q

endocrine signal

A

a chemical signal (hormone) that is released into the bloodstream by a producing cell (gland)

  • acts on a distant target cell
  • most common
  • most effective
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13
Q

neural signal

A

neurotransmitters that diffus a short distance from presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic cell, where it binds to a membrane receptor & results in a change in the membrane potential

  • very fast
  • short-lived

*synapse

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14
Q

neuroendocrine signal

A

nerve cells (neurons) that release hormones into the blood or to hormones themselves

  • considered hormones
  • carried by blood & otro body fluids
  • act on distant cells
  • do not act on/at synapse

(ie) antidiuretic hormone
(aka) neurohormone

“nerve inside separated”

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15
Q

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

A

a peptide hormone, secreted from the posterior pituitary gland
- stimulates water retention by the kidney

(aka) vasopressin

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16
Q

hormone signaling pathways

A

1) endocrine pathway
2) neuroendocrine pathway
3) CNS-to-endocrine pathway

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17
Q

endocrine pathway

A

sends hormones directly from endocrine cells to effector cells

signal -> endocrine cell -> effector cell

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18
Q

neuroendocrine pathway

A

releases neuroendocrine signals that act directly on effector cells

signal -> sensor cell -> CNS -> effector cell

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19
Q

hormones in insects regulate _____.

A

molting & metamorphosis

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20
Q

CNS-to-endocrine pathway

A

neuroendocrine signals stimulate cells in the endocrine system, which respond by producing an endocrine signal that acts on effector cells

stimulus -> receptor cell -> endocrine cell -> effector cell

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21
Q

steps to shutting down a hormone

A

1) hormones produced by effector cells feed back to endocrine cells, lowering hormone production
2) effector hormone also feeds back to neuroendocrine & neuroendocrine-to-endocrine pathways
3) endocrine signals are released in response to electrical signals, which modulate the signal from the nervous system

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22
Q

endocrine gland

A

a gland that secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream or interstitial fluid instead of into ducts

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23
Q

hormones in insectes regulate _____.

A

molting & metamorphosis

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24
Q

major human endocrine glands

A

1) pituitary gland
2) thyroid gland
3) parathyroid gland
4) kidney
5) adrenal gland
6) pancreas

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25
Q

pituitary gland

A

a small gland located directly under the brain

  • physically/functionally connected to hypothalamus
  • produces/secretes hormones that affect many other glands & organs
  • regions: anterior & posterior
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26
Q

thyroid gland

A

a gland in the neck that releases thyroid hormone (increases metabolic rate) and calcitonin (lowers blood calcium)

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27
Q

parathyroid gland

A

a part of the thyroid gland

- controls calcium levels (calcitonin)

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28
Q

polypeptide

A

a chain of 50+ amino acids linked juntos by peptide bonds

  • nonsoluble lipids
  • need receptor
  • acts @ cell surface
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29
Q

amino acid derivative

A
  • not lipid soluble
  • bind to receptors located in the membranes of target cells
  • acts @ cell surface
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30
Q

steroid

A

a class of lipid w/ a characteristic 4-ring hydrocarbon structure

  • large molecule
  • lipid soluble
  • acts inside cell
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31
Q

kidney

A

one of a paired organ situated @ back of abdominal cavity

  • filters blood
  • produces urine
  • secretes several hormones
  • attached to adrenal glands
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32
Q

adrenal glands

A

endocrine glands

  • sit on top of kidneys
  • cortex secretes steroid hormones
  • medulla secretes epinephrine & norepinephrine
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33
Q

major human endocrine glands

A

1) pituitary gland
2) thyroid gland
3) parathyroid gland
4) kidney
5) adrenal gland
6) pancreas
7) ovary
8) testes

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34
Q

pancreas

A

a large gland in vertebrates that has both exocrine & endocrine functions

  • secretes digestive enzymes into a duct connected to the intestine
  • secretes several hormones (insulin & glucagon) into the bloodstream
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35
Q

a single hormone can

A

exert a variety of effects

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36
Q

ovary

A

egg-producing organ of a female animal

seed-producing structure in female part of a flower

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37
Q

testis

A

sperm-producing organ of a male animal

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38
Q

exocrine gland

A

a gland that secretes some substance through a duct into a space other than the circulatory system
- major role in puberty acne

(ie) digestive tract or skin surface

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39
Q

chemical families

A

1) polypeptides
2) amino acid derivatives
3) steroids

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40
Q

secretin

A

a peptide hormone produced by cells in the small intesting in response to the arrival of food from the stomach
- stimulates secretion of bicarbonate (HCO3) from the pancreas

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41
Q

epinephrine

A

a catecholamine hormone produced & secreted by adrenal medulla
- triggers rapid responses related to fight-or-flight response

(aka) adrenaline

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42
Q

thyroxin (T4)

A

a lipid-soluble hormone derived from the amino acid tyrosine

  • produced/secreted by thyroid gland
  • regulates cellular metabolism
  • (humans) converted to active triiodothyronine (T3) in the liver
  • lipid soluble
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43
Q

thyroxin (T4)

A

a lipid-soluble hormone derived from the amino acid tyrosine

  • produced/secreted by thyroid gland
  • regulates cellular metabolism
  • (humans) converted to active triiodothyronine (T3) in the liver
  • lipid soluble
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44
Q

to affect a target cell, all polypeptides & most amino acids derivatives

A

bind to receptor on the cell surface

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45
Q

lipid-soluble hormone (steroids) can diffuse

A

through the plasma membraane & bind to receptors inside the cell

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46
Q

growth hormone (GH)

A

a peptide hormone produced/secreted by anterior pituitary

  • promotes lengtheing of long bones in children and muscle growth, tissue repair & lactation in adults
  • stimulates mitosis & growth
  • determines how fast to grow

(aka) somatotropin

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47
Q

what happens when the pituitary gland of an animal is removed?

A

animal stops growing

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48
Q

single hormone can

A

exert a variety of effects

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49
Q

several hormones may

A

affect the same aspect of physiology

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50
Q

hormones coordinate the activities of cells in 3 areas

A

1) development growth & reproduction
2) response to environmental challenges
3) maintenance of homeostasis

51
Q

growth + sex hormones

A
  • promotes cells division
  • promotes growth
  • promotes sexual differentiation
52
Q

metamorphosis

A

transition from 1 developmental stage to another

  • requires a lot of energy
  • (during) immune system shuts down, makes more susceptible to diseases/viruses

(ie) larval to adult form of an animal

53
Q

triiodothyronine (T3)

A

thyroid hormone responsible for most changes observed in metamorphosis

  • produced in response to signals from brain
  • lipid soluble
  • derived from amino acid tyrosine
  • increases cellular metabolism
  • has stronger effect than thyroxine (T4)
54
Q

ways juvenile amphibians resond to increased levels of T3

A

1) grow & form new structures: legs
2) cells die: tadpole tail
3) cell change structure & function

55
Q

larva

A

an immature stage of an animal species in which the immature & adult stages have different body forms
- juvenile stage

56
Q

pupal case

A

a tough case that juveniles secrete during metamorphosis

57
Q

metamorphosis depends on interactions between

A

juvenile hormone (JH) & ecdysone

58
Q

juvenile hormone (JH)

A

an insect hormone that prevents larvae from metamorphosing into adults

59
Q

ecdysone

A

an insect hormone that triggers either molting (to a larger larval form) or metamorphosis (to the adult form)
- depends on the level of juvenile hormone (JH)

60
Q

if juvenile hormone (JH) levels are high, ecdysone triggers _______.

A

growth of juvenile by molting

61
Q

if juvenile hormeon (JH) levels are low, ecdysone triggers ________.

A

metamorphosis and the transition to adulthood & sexual maturity

62
Q

types of metamorphosis

A

1) complete

2) incomplete

63
Q

incomplete metamorphosis

A

a type of metamorphosis in which the animal increases in size from one stage to the next, but does not dramatically change its body form

(aka) hemimetabolous metamorphosis
(ie) humans & animals

64
Q

complete metamorphosis

A

a type of metamorphosis in which the animal completely changes its form
- includes a distinct larval stage

(aka) holometabolous metamorphosis
(ie) butterfly

65
Q

primary sex determination

A

events early in development that dictate whether the sex organs (gonads) of the vertebrate embryo become male or female
- depends on genes on sex chromosomes

66
Q

hormone produced by testes

A

1) testosterone

2) Mullerian inhibitory substance

67
Q

testosterone

A

a steroid hormone

  • produced/secreted by testes
  • stimulates sperm production, various male traits & reproductive behaviors
68
Q

Mullerian inhibitory substance

A

a peptide hormone

  • secreted by embryonic testis
  • causes regression (withering away) of the female reproductive ducts
69
Q

estradiol

A

major estrogen

  • produced by ovaries
  • stimulates development of female reproductive tract, growth of ovarian follicles & growth of breast tissue in mammals
70
Q

sex hormones play a role in

A

the juvenile to adult transition

(ie) puberty

71
Q

sex hormone play a key role in:

A

1) development of the reproductive tract in embryos
2) reproductive tract maturation during transition from childhood to adulthood
3) regulation of spermatogenesis & oogenesis in adults

72
Q

puberty

A

the various physical & emotional changes that an immature human undergoes in reaching reproductive maturity
- period when such changes occur

73
Q

photoperiod

A

the amount of time per day (usually in hours) that an organism is exposed to light
- stimulates release of sex hormones in some mammals, birds & lizards

74
Q

how photoperiod affects sex hormone release

A

1) photoreceptors send signals to the hypothalamus
2) hypothalamus initiates a series of signals that stimulate sex hormone production
3) in some animals, the photoreceptors are located in the retina, which signals the pineal gland
4) pineal gland secretes melatonin, which sends signals to the hypothalamus

75
Q

pineal gland

A

an endocrine gland located in the brain

  • detects light
  • secretes/activates melatonin based on amount of light
76
Q

melatonin

A

a hormone produced by the pineal gland

  • regulates sleep/wake cycles
  • regulates seasonal reproduction in vertebrates
  • maximum secretion occurs at night
  • concentration decreases during daylight hours
77
Q

a decline in melatonin stimulates hypothalamus, which causes

A

sex organs to produce sex hormones

78
Q

endocrine disruptor

A

an exogenous chemical that interferes w/ normal hormonal signaling
- many are xenoestrogens

79
Q

xenoestrogen

A

foreign chemicals that bind to estrogen receptors or otherwise induce estrogen-like effects

80
Q

examples of endocrine disruptor

A

1) atrazine, an herbicide - causes reproductive abnormalities
2) bisphenol (BPA) - causes abnormal development of the brain & reproductive tissue

81
Q

fight-or-flight response

A

rapid physiological changes that prepare the body for emergencies

  • increased heart rate
  • increased blood pressure
  • decreased digestion
  • triggered by sympathetic nervous system
82
Q

epinephrine

A

a catecholamine hormone produced/secreted by adrenal medulla

  • triggers rapid responses related to the fight-or-flight response
  • short-term stress

(aka) adrenaline

83
Q

cortisol

A

a steroid hormone produced/secreted by the adrenal cortex

  • increases blood glucose
  • prepares body for stress
  • major glucocorticoid hormone
  • ensures continued availibility of glucose for the brain
  • may cause cardiovasuclar disease
  • long-term stress

(aka) hydrocortisone

84
Q

glucocorticoid

A

a class of steroid hormones

  • produced/secreted by adrenal cortex
  • increases blood glucose
  • prepares body for stress

(ie) cortisol & cotricosterone

85
Q

how cortisol controls blood sugar in humans

A

1) induces liver to produce enzymes that generate glucose from amino acids
2) changes adipose tissue & resting muscles resistant to insulin so they will not take in glucose
3) promotes the release of fatty acids for use by the heart & muscles

86
Q

how are hormones involved in homeostasis?

A

1) sensory receptors monitor conditions relative to a set point
2) an integrator processes info from the sensor
3) effector cells return the condition to the set point

87
Q

parabiosis

A

an experimental technique for determining whether a certain physiological phenomenon is regulated by a hormone

  • consists of surgically uniting 2 individuals so that hormones can pass between them
  • may also be natural (conjoined twins)
88
Q

leptin

A

a hormone produced/secreted by fat cells (adipocytes)

  • stabilizes fat-tissue mass by inhibiting appetite & increasing energy expenditure
  • reduces appetite in response to increase in adipose tissue mass
89
Q

If ADH is present, there will be a _______ (large/small) volume of urine.

A

small

90
Q

If ADH is not present, there will be a _______ (large/small) volume of urine.

A

large

91
Q

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

A

a peptide hormone

  • secreted from posterior pituitary gland
  • stimulates water retention by the kidney
  • increases permeability of the kidney’s collecting ducts to water (water reabsorbed from urine)

(aka) vasopressin

92
Q

aldosterone

A

a hormone that stimulates the kidney to conserve salt & water (electrolyte)

  • promotes sodium retention
  • produced in adrenal cortex
93
Q

mineralocorticoid

A

a class of steroid hormones

  • produced/secreted by adrenal cortex
  • regulate electrolyte levels & overall volume of body fluids
  • related to aldosterone & adrenal hormones
94
Q

erthyopoietin (EPO)

A

a peptide hormone

  • released by kidney in response to low blood-oxygen levels
  • stimulates bone marrow to produce more RBC
95
Q

The more red blood cells, the _______ (higher/lower) the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.

A

higher

96
Q

hormones are regulated by

A

CNS, brain & spinal cord

97
Q

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

A

a peptide hormone

  • produced/secretedby anterior pituitary
  • stimulates release of steroid hormones (cortisol/aldosterone) from adrenal cortex
98
Q

corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

A

a peptide hormone

  • produced/secreted by the hypothalamus
  • stimulates the anterior pituitary to release ACTH
99
Q

what happens when feedback mechanism fails (CRH, ACTH, cortisol)?

A

there will be high levels of ACTH in the blood

100
Q

epinephrine

A

a catecholamine hormone produced/secreted by adrenal medulla

  • triggers rapid responses related to the fight-or-flight response
  • released for short-term stress

(aka) adrenaline

101
Q

cortisol

A

a steroid hormone produced/secreted by the adrenal cortex

  • increases blood glucose
  • prepares body for stress
  • major glucocorticoid hormone
  • ensures continued availibility of glucose for the brain
  • may cause cardiovasuclar disease
  • other tissues/organs become expendable (abandoned/destroyed)
  • released for long-term stress
  • inhibits CRH & ACTH

(aka) hydrocortisone

102
Q

Cushing’s disease

A

a human endocrine disorder

  • inability of cortisol to suppress hormone production
  • caused by loss of feedback inhibition of cortisol on ACTH secretion
  • high ACTH levels
  • high cortisol levels
  • wasting of body protein reserves
103
Q

hypothalamic-pituitary axis

A

the functional interaction of the hypothalamus & anterior pituitary gland, which are anatomically distinct but work juntos to regulate most of the other endocrine glands in the body

104
Q

neurosecretory cell

A

a neuron that produces/secretes hormones into the bloodstream
- primarily found in the hypothalamus

(aka) neuroendocrine cell

105
Q

relationship btwn ADH & oxytocin

A

1) both produced by neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus
2) stored in the posterior pituitary
3) released into the bloodstream

106
Q

hormones that the anterior pituitary gland produces

A

1) ACTH
2) follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
3) lutenizing hormone (LH)
4) growth hormone (GH)
5) prolactin
6) thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

107
Q

follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

A

a peptide hormone

  • produced/secrete by the anterior pituitary
  • (females) stimulates growth of eggs & follicles
  • (males) stimulates sperm production
108
Q

lutenizing hormone (LH)

A

a peptide hormone

  • produced/secreted by the anterior pituitary
  • (females) stimulates estrogen production, ovulation & formation of the corpus lateum
  • (males) stimulates testosterone production
109
Q

prolactin

A

a peptide hormone

  • produced/secreted by the anterioro pituitary gland
  • (female) promotes milk production
  • has a variety of effects on parental behavior
  • has effect on seasonal reproduction in other vertebrates
110
Q

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

A

a peptide hormone

  • produced/secreted by the anterior pituitary
  • stimulates release of thyroid hormones from thyroid gland
111
Q

modes of controlling epinephrine

A

1) neurotransmitters change gene expression in neurons

2) hormones change gene expression in target cells

112
Q

Differences in _________ of hormones influence where a target cells receives the chemical message

A

lipid solubility

113
Q

estradiol

A

major estrogen

  • produced by ovaries
  • stimulates development of female reproductive tract
  • (mammals) stimulates growth of ovarian follicles & growth of breast tissue
  • most important estrogen
  • receptor found only in the nucleus of the targeted tissue
114
Q

estrogen

A

a class of steroid hormones

  • includes: estradiol, estrone & estriol
  • promote female-like traits
  • secreted by gonads, fat tissue & otro organs
  • lipid soluble
  • enters cell through plasma membrane
115
Q

characteristics of steroid hormones

A

1) lipid soluble
2) enter a target cell
3) bind to receptors inside the cell
4) causes a change in gene expression

116
Q

zinc finger

A

a distinctive DNA-binding region for steroid-hormone receptors

117
Q

how change in gene expression occurs

A

1) interfere w/ transcription

2) bind directly to DNA, the steroid hormone receptor complex binds to the hormone-response gene

118
Q

phosphorylase

A

an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of glucose from glycogen by triggering a signal transduction cascade
- activated by epinephrine

119
Q

cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)

A

a small molecule

  • derived from ATP
  • widely used by cells in signal transduction & transcriptional control
  • second messenger
120
Q

second messenger

A

a nonprotein signaling molecule produced/activated inside a cell in response to stimulation @ the cell surface
- commonly used to relay the message of a hormone or other extracellular signaling molecule

121
Q

cAMP-dependent protein kinase A

A

(triggers signal transduction cascade)
enzyme that responds to cAMP
- phosphorylated phosphorylase kinase, which phosphorylates phosphorylase

122
Q

steps leading up to signal transduction cascade

A

1) epinephrine binds to a surface receptor
2) the enzyme adenylyl cyclase (AC enzyme) is activated
3) the AC enzyme catalyzed ATP to cAMP
4) cAMP initiates the signal transduction cascade

123
Q

signal transduction cascade

A

a series of enzyme-catalyzed phosphorylation reactions

  • commonly used in signal transduction pathways to amplify
  • convey a signal inward from plasma membrane
  • diverse
  • complex
124
Q

steps leading up to signal transduction cascade

A

1) epinephrine binds to a surface receptor
2) the enzyme adenylyl cyclase (AC enzyme) is activated
3) the AC enzyme catalyzed ATP to cAMP
4) cAMP initiates the signal transduction cascade

125
Q

model for phosphorylation cascade

A

1) cAMP transmits signal from the cell surface to the signaling cascade
2) cAMP + subsequent phosphorylation events amplify the original signal from epinephrine

BIO225 (26 decks)

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