Ch 6 Shock

Question 1

Shock
How associated with oxygen delivery (DO2)?

Answer 1

observed when tissue oxygen delivery or utilization is compromised > result sin tissue hypoxia

Oxygen delivery (DO2) depends upon adequate cardiac output (CO) and arterial oxygen content (CaO2).

Question 2

compensatory mechanisms (4)

Answer 2

(1) tachycardia (to increase oxygen delivery)

(2) tachypnea (to increase oxygenation),

(3) peripheral vasoconstriction (to maintain perfusion of vital organs),

(4) mental depression (in response to decreased perfusion or hypoxia).

Question 3

4 main types of shock

Answer 3

Hypovolaemic - Reduction in circulating intravascular volume (reduced CO)
Haemorrhage, Burns, 3rd space, dehydration, V+D+

Cardiogenic - Inability of heart to propel blood through circulation. Includes obstructive shock by decreasing to preload
CHF, tension pneumo

Distributive - Maldistribution of vascular volume and massive vasodilation resulting in relative hypovolaemia. Sepsis and SIRS, anaphylaxis, drugs, severe CNS damage

Hypoxic - Adequate perfusion but inadequate arterial oxygen content or cellular oxygen utilisation

Question 4

DO2 = CaO2 x CO

factors determining oxygen delivery

Answer 4

arterial oxygen = hemoglobin.

ability to carry oxygen ~ the amount of hemoglobin.

saturation ~ function of the hemoglobin molecule + gas exchange in the lung

Question 5

CO

SV = preload, afterload, and contractility.

CO = SV x HR

Answer 5

Increase heart rate

preload = load imposed on a resting muscle to stretch = EDV

Afterload = force that opposes muscle contraction = pressure during systole, influence by SVR

Contractility = force and velocity

Question 6

Arterial Oxygen Content
Depends on hb what?

Answer 6

depends mainly on hemoglobin concentration and oxygen saturation of hemoglobin in arterial blood (SaO2)

hemoglobin affinity for oxygen increases as the oxygen saturation of hemoglobin increases)

Question 7

What factors influence the affinity of Hb for Oxygen

Answer 7

pH, temperature, 2,3-DPG, CO2

Question 8

what impairs O2 delivery?

Answer 8

reduction in cardiac output > ain determinant of tissue perfusion

Dysrhythmias

preload, afterload, and contractility
Example of a reduction in preload is hemorrhagic shock

decreased afterload is the primary mechanism that leads to distributive shock.

Question 9

ALTS (Advanced Trauma Life Support) classed of haemorrhage

4 classes

Answer 9

Class 1 - loss of up to 15% blood volume. Clinical signs absent or mild

Class 2 - Loss 15-30%. Tachycardia, tachypnoea, weak pulses

Class 3 - Loss 30-40%. mms pale, CRT prolonged, arterial hypotension

Class 4 - Loss of >40%. Severe and immediately life-threatening. Cold extremities, altered mentation, profound hypotension

Question 10

Oxygen uptake (VO2)

central venous oxygen saturation normal but tissue oxygenation impaired

Answer 10

Diffussional shunting - slow blood velocity cause diffusion of oxygen from arterial into venous blood instead of into the tissues (in GIT during shock)

Diffusional resistance - Tissue oedema increases diffusion distance and limits oxygen availability

AV shunting - Loss of capillary bloodflow due to SIRS/sepsis, thrombi etc

Perfusion/metabolic mismatch - increased metabolic oxygen demands

Cytopathic hypoxia - mitochondrial dysfunction such as in sepsis

Question 11

lactate

Answer 11

hypoxia leads to anaerobic glycolysis

if the hypoxia is global, lactate will diffuse into the bloodstream. Major sources of lactate are muscle and the gastrointestinal tract.

Question 12

compensatory response

shift of body fluids from the interstitium into the intravascular space, augmenting the circulating volume. This compensatory mechanism is a major reason for the observed decrease in total protein level and hematocrit

to support vital organs with adequate oxygen delivery

Answer 12

Maintaining mean circulatory pressure (circulating volume and pressure)
* Maximizing cardiac performance
* Redistributing perfusion
* Optimizing oxygen unloading

reduce BP > reduced baroreceptor and reduced kidney perfusion

stimulates sympathetic system and RAAS

leads to release of adrenalin/vasocontriction and increased volume (Na+ retention) + increased HR > increased CO + SVR

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis > Cortisol, along with growth hormone, shift in metabolism toward a catabolic state

blood flow is selectively redirected toward vital organs

expense of cutaneous and splanchnic circulation > clinical signs: pale mucous membranes, increased capillary refill time, and cool extremities.

Question 13

shock also trigger inflammatory responses through hypoxia

Answer 13

cell death dt energy fail > DAMPS released > pro-inflamm.

hypoxia-inducible factors

reintroduction of oxygen to previously hypoxic or ischemic tissues
reperfusion injury is associated with the generation of damaging oxygen and nitrogen free radicals
> auses tissue damage and the release of increased numbers of cytokines and other inflammatory mediators. Neutrophils and endothelial cells are activated, further amplifying the damage and obstructing capillaries

Question 14

hypoperfusion and inflammation

hypothermia

Answer 14

tissue trauma and promotes an anticoagulant and hyperfibrinolytic state

Proinflammatory cytokines > may directly activate platelets, causing a systemic procoagulant effect

Hypothermia is common in advanced stages of shock and inhibits platelet aggregation

Question 15

acute coagulopathy of trauma

3 x hypothesis

Answer 15

A fibrinolytic variant fo DIC

Enhance thrombomodulin-thrombin protein C pathway
(decreased thrombin degradation and increased activation of anticoagulant and profibrinolytic protein C)

Neurohumoral response (Catecholamine induced glycocalyx damage and expression of prothrombotic phenotype. Counterregulatory increase in anticoagulants and fibrinolytics leads to systemic anticoagulation and hyperfibrinolysis

Question 16

What are considered the shock organs in the dog and cat?

Answer 16

dog - GIT
cat - Lungs

Question 17

Over what MAP ranges will perfusion be maintained to the kidneys, myocardium and the brain?

Answer 17

Kidneys - 70-130mmHg
Myocardium - 60-140mmHg
Brain - 50-180mmHg

Question 18

What is considered physiologic central venous pressure for dogs and cats?

Answer 18

0-5cmH20

Question 19

CS

Answer 19

extremely high heart rates, primary rhythm disturbances (e.g., supraventricular tachycardia

rom pale pink to white or gray)
capillary refill time (markedly increased). Limb extremities become cool.

Persistent hypoperfusion leads to various signs of multiple organ dysfunction such as profound mental depression, marked decrease in urine output, and gastrointestinal signs of ileus, diarrhea, and melena.

bacterial translocation and potentially sepsis.

Question 20

BP = CO X SVR

Answer 20

minimum blood pressure needed to maintain perfusion of major body systems is typically defined as mean arterial pressure > 60 mm Hg or systolic arterial pressure > 90 mm Hg.

patients with hypotension or arrhythmias, the oscillometric method has been reported to consistently underestimate blood pressure

Central venous pressure, in the absence of vascular obstruction, is closely correlated with right atrial pressure. Right atrial pressure is in turn related to right ventricle end-diastolic volume (EDV),

direct and indirect BP monitoring

Question 21

lactate

normal below 2.5 mmol/L

Answer 21

Evaluating lactate clearance or trends in lactate through sequential blood samples appears to be more useful than obtaining a single value.

a persistently elevated lactate concentration despite fluid resuscitation is indicative of a poor prognosis

Lactate is a late and insensitive marker of hypoperfusion and rises only after the oxygen extraction of tissues has been already maximized

Question 22

Type A and B lactic acidosis

Answer 22

Inadequate oxygen delivery is the most common cause of increased blood lactate concentration (type A lactic acidosis),

normal oxygen delivery (type B lactic acidosis). occur when mitochondrial function is impaired > sepsis, diabetes mellitus, and neoplasia or drugs and toxins.

Question 23

monitoring

us: AFST/TFAST
ECG
blood gas
PCV/TP
pule Ox
BP + CVP
Temp

Answer 23

Measurements of cardiac output, blood pressure, lactate concentration, and base excess reflect global perfusion status.

Rectal temperature
Gastric tonometry
Sublingual capnometry
Near-infrared spectroscopy

Pulse oximetry and arterial blood gas analysis are two techniques that allow reliable measurement of oxygenation.
accuracy affected by vasoconstriction, hypothermia, or peripheral hypoperfusion, pigmented mucous membranes

normal SpO2 > 97%

Question 24

Normal PaO2 is > 90 mm Hg

Answer 24

For patients with supplemental oxygen, the PaO2 should be approximately five times the percent of inspired oxygen (the PaO2/FiO2 ratio should be approximately 500

Question 25

Treatment

Answer 25

o Initial stabilization should focus on airway, breathing, circulation, and neurologic derangements
o Pathway specific interventions
 Optimization of oxygen delivery and reestablishment of adequate tissue perfusion
 Aggressive support of organ function
 Identification and treatment of the underlying/initiating disease

Question 26

O2

Answer 26

 flow by FiO2 (e.g., 25% to 40% with a flow rate of 2 to 3 L/min)
 Mask 1 to 5 L/min, these techniques allow FiO2 of 30% to 60%
 Oxygen cages are closed environments where higher FiO2 can be achieved (>60%).
 Nasal cannula: F

Question 27

IVFT

endpoints of SpO2 >94% (or PaO2 >80) and [Hb] >8 (or hematocrit >24%)

Answer 27

acidemic and would benefit from a buffered isotonic crystalloid

for hypovolemia, an isotonic crystalloid should be administered at a shock
rate (dogs, 20 mL/kg, up to 90 mL/kg; cats, 10 mL/kg, up to 40–50 mL/kg) over 15 minutes, and then EOR should be reassessed

 Volumes of colloids exceeding 22 mL/kg/day may impair coagulation, interfering with von Willebrand factor and factor VIII activity

 Hypertonic saline (NaCl 7.0% to 7.5%, administered at 2 to 6 mL/kg, and typically no faster than 1 mL/kg/min

whole blood (20 to 25 mL/kg), packed red blood cells (10 to 15 mL/kg), or hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (Oxyglobin)

hypotensive resuscitation for patients with active hemorrhage

Question 28

vasopressors or inotropes

Answer 28

dopamine: 2-3mcg/kg/min, b=adrenergc activity, Causes vasodilation through activation of dopaminergic receptor

noradrenalin: 0.1-2, Primarily α agonist

Phenylephrine 1-3, potent vasoconstrictor

Question 29

other Tx

Answer 29

o Early enteral feeding, if feasible, is preferred because it supports gastrointestinal integrity, thus minimizing bacterial translocation

analgesia and/or sedation

cardiogenic shock is oxygen supplementation

Question 29

Distributive Shock and Sepsis

SIRS – systemic inflammatory response to infectious or noninfectious

Answer 29

marked decrease in systemic vascular resistance caused by loss of vascular tone and massive vasodilation.

by anaphylaxis (anaphylactic shock), severe damage to the central nervous system (neurogenic shock), or drugs, but most frequently is associated with systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) and sepsis.

Question 30

pathophysiology

Answer 30

Different bacterial products (e.g., lipopolysaccharide, a component of the bacterial cell wall) = potent activators of the host response

bind on specific macrophage receptors

induce the production of proinflammatory mediators and cytokines

accumulation of inflammatory cells in capillary beds and peripheral tissues
> Microthrombi, endothelial cell swelling, and leukocyte accumulation

major organ systems are damaged by hypoperfusion, cytopathic hypoxia, ischemia-reperfusion injuries (ARDS)

Sepsis impairs the function of the cardiovascular system, affecting the myocardium, vessels, and coagulation, and thus contributing to acute circulatory failure

Question 31

CS

Answer 31

 compensated phase (hyperdynamic or warm) or a decompensated phase (hypodynamic or cold)

 Cats with sepsis often present with hypothermia, bradycardia, normal to pale or icteric mucous membranes, and nonspecific pain

Question 32

treatment

restore perfusion, identification and eradication of septic foci, and supportive care to prevent organ dysfunction

Answer 32

o Early Goal-Directed Therapy
MAP >65 mm Hg, urine output >0.5 mL/kg, and CVP 8 to 12 mm Hg

four-quadrant” therapy effective against Gram-positive and Gram-negative aerobes and anaerobes

Low-dose (physiologic) glucocorticoid in vasopressor-refractory hypotension

o Glucose Control

Clindamycin and enrofloxacin

Question 33

Retrospective evaluation of the
indications, safety and effects of
fresh frozen plasma transfusions
in 36 cats (2014–2018)
Mansi 2020 JFMS

Answer 33

Thirty-six cats received 54 FFP transfusions

Eighteen of these cats had improved coagulation times after receiving 1–3 units

15% transfusion reaction