Chapter 1 - The History Of Psychology

Question 1

Scientific approach

Answer 1

-System of gathering data so bias and error measurement are reduced.

Question 2

Psychology’s goals

Answer 2

• Description: What’s happening?
• Explanation: Why it’s happening?
• Prediction: When will it happen again?
• Control: How can it be changed?

Question 3

Scientific approach (steps)

Answer 3

• Step 1. Perceive the question.
• Step 2. Form a hypothesis; Tentative explanation of phenomenon based on observation.
• Step 3. Test the hypothesis.
• Step 4. Draw conclusion.
• Step 5. Report your results; other could replicate study or experiment to see whether same results will be obtained to demonstrate reliability of results.

Question 4

Naturalistic observation

Answer 4

• Watching animals or humans behave in normal environment.
• Major advantage: Realist picture of behavior.
• Disadvantage: Observer effect, observer bias, each naturalistic setting is unique, and observations may not hold.

Question 5

Laboratory observation

Answer 5

• watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting.
• Advantages - control over environment, allows use of specialized equipment.
• Disadvantage - artificial situation may result in artificial behavior. (description methods* lead to formation of testable hypotheses)

Question 6

Case studies

Answer 6

• study of one individual in great detail.
• Advantage: tremendous amount of detail.
• Disadvantage: cannot apply to others.
• Ex: Famous case study - Phineas Gage

Question 7

Surveys

Answer 7

• Researchers ask a series of questions about topic under study.
• Given to representative sample of population.
• Population: entire group of people or animals in which researchers is interested.
• Advantages: data from large #’s of people; study convert behaviors.
• Disadvantage: must ensure representative sample or results not meaningful: Courtesy bias.

Question 8

Correlation

Answer 8

• Measure of relationship between two variables (anything that can change or vary) in mathematical formula and produce a correlation coefficient.
• knowing value of one allows researchers to predict value of another.
• 1. Direction of relationship
• 2. Strength of relationship
• Correlation coefficient ranges from -1.00 to +1.00 -closer to -1.00 or +1.00, Stronger the relationship between two variables.
• No correlation = 0.0
• Perfect correlation = -1.00 or + 1.00

Question 9

Positive correlation

Answer 9

• Variables are related in the same direction
• As one increases, other increases
• As one decreases, other decreases.

Question 10

Negative correlation

Answer 10

• Variables are related in opposite direction.
• One increases, other decreases.

Correlation does not prove causation!!

Question 11

Experiment

Answer 11

• Deliberate manipulation of variable to see whether corresponding changes in behavior result, allowing determination of cause-and-effect relationships.

Question 12

Operationalization

Answer 12

• Specific definition of variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured.
• Ex. Def. of aggressive play.

Question 13

Independent Variable (IV)

Answer 13

• In experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter.

Question 14

Dependent variable (DV)

Answer 14

• In experiment that represents measurable response or behavior of subjects in experiment.

Question 15

Experimental group

Answer 15

• Subjects in experiment who are subjected to independent variable.

Question 16

Control group

Answer 16

-Subjects who are not subjected to independent variables and may receive placebo treatment.

Question 17

Random assignment

Answer 17

• Process of assigning subjects to experimental or control groups randomly.

Question 18

Placebo

Answer 18

• Phenomenon where the expectation of participants can influence their behavior.

Question 19

Experimenter effect

Answer 19

• Experimenters expectations for study to unintentionally influence results.

Question 20

Single-Blind study

Answer 20

• Subjects don’t know whether they’re in experiment or control group.
• Reduces placebo effect.

Question 21

Double-Blind

Answer 21

• Neither experimenter not the subjects know who are in what group.
• Reduces placebo effect and experimenter effect.

Question 22

Institutional review boards

Answer 22

-groups of psychologists or other professionals look over research study and judge it according to its safety and consideration for the participants in study.

Question 23

Common Ethical Guidelines

Answer 23

• Rights and well-being of participants must be weighed against study’s value to science.
• Participants must be allowed to make informed decisions.
• Deception must be justified
• May withdraw from study, any time.
• Must be protected from risks or told of risks.
• Investigators must full debrief participants.
• data must remain confidential.
• If study results in undesirable consequences, researchers responsible for detecting/removing/correcting.

Question 24

Four Basic Criteria

Answer 24

• 1. There are very few “truths” that don’t need to be subjected to testing.
• 2. All evidence isn’t equal in quality.
• 3. Authority or lots of expertise doesn’t make everything they claim true.
• 4. Critical thinking requires open mind.

Question 25

Hypothesis

Answer 25

-Tentative explanation of a phenomenon based on observation.

Question 26

Replicate

Answer 26

• In research, relegating a study or experiment to see if the same results will be obtained in an effort to demonstrate reliability of results.

Question 27

Observer effect

Answer 27

-Tendency if people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed.

Question 27

Participate observation

Answer 27

• A naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant in the group being observed.

Question 27

Observer bias

Answer 27

• Tendency of observers to see what they expect to see.

Question 27

Representative Sample

Answer 27

• Randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population of subjects.

Question 27

Population

Answer 27

• The entire group of people or animals in which the researcher is interested.

Question 27

Correlation coefficient

Answer 27

• Number that represents the strength and direction of a relationship existing between two variables; number derived from the formula for measuring a correlation.