Chapter 11 Flashcards
(168 cards)
0
Q
the prenatal period extends from?
A
conception to birth , usually encompassing 9 months of pregnancy
1
Q
What is development?
A
- the sequence of age-related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death.
2
Q
what are the stages of prenatal development?
A
germinal stage –> embryonic stage –> fetal stage
3
Q
When does the germinal stage occur and last
A
- first two weeks
4
Q
What happens during the germinal stage?
A
- rapid cell division happens
- the cell mass migrates to the uterus to begin implantation in the uterine wall
- the placenta forms here during implantaiton
5
Q
What is the placenta?
A
A structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to enter the fetus from the mother’s bloodstream and bodily wastes to exit the fetus and enter the mother
6
Q
When does the embryonic stage happen?
A
- from 2 weeks to 2 months
7
Q
What happens during the embryonic stage?
A
- the vital organs and body systems such as heart, brain and spine emerge.
8
Q
Which stage of prenatal development is the most vulnerable and why?
A
- embryonic stage
- when interference occurs in this stage, the effects can be very devastating.
9
Q
When does the fetal stage start and end?
A
- 2 months up to birth.
10
Q
What happens during the fetal stage?
A
- the body continues to grow and function
- the sex organ develop in the third month
- brain cells multiply during the final 3 months
11
Q
When is age of viability reached?
A
- in the fetal stage, between 22 weeks to 26 weeks
12
Q
at 22 weeks or 23, what are the chances of the baby surviving if born prematurely?
A
very slim
13
Q
When is the baby’s survival rate greater if born prematurely?
A
- at 26-28 weeks
14
Q
At 9 weeks during the fetal stage, what happens?
A
formation of brain and differentiation of ovaries and testes
15
Q
in 12 weeks of the fetal stage, what happens?
A
- the baby can smile and frown
- the circulatory system is working
16
Q
in 16 weeks of the fetal stage, what happens?
A
- the heartbeat is strong and the mother can feel the movement of baby
17
Q
in 20 weeks of the fetal stage, what happens?
A
- hiccups begin and hair forms
18
Q
In 24 weeks of the fetal stage, what happens?
A
- the visual and auditory senses are functional and the eyes begin to open
19
Q
in 28 weeks of the fetal stage, what happens?
A
- body fat is added
- brain specialization
20
Q
In 32 weeks of the fetal stage, what happens?
A
periods of sleep and wakefulness
21
Q
in 36 weeks of the fetal stage, what happens?
A
- rapid increase in weight and gains immunity from the mother
22
Q
in 38 weeks of the fetal stage, what happens?
A
the baby is born
23
Q
What are tetratogens?
A
any external agents such as drugs, viruses that can harm the embryo of fetus
24
How does maternal malnutrition affect the fetus or embryo?
- severe maternal malnutrition can increase the risk of neurological problems in the newborn
- moderate maternal malnutrition can have negatives for many years after birth
- maternal malnutrition has been linked to schizophrenia, vulnerability and other psychiatric disorders in adolescence and adulthood
25
How does maternal drug use affect the embryo or fetus?
- prescription, over the counter or recreational drugs can lead to birth defects specifically FAS
26
What is FAS?
- Fetal Alcohol syndrome
| - a collection of congenital or inborn problems associated with excessive drinking of the mother during pregnancy
27
What are the problems associated to FAS?
- vulnerability
- irritability,
- microcephaly
- heart defects
- hyperactivity
- delayed mental and motor development
- increased incidence of depression, suicide and criminal behaviour in adulthood
28
Research shows light or moderate alcohol consumption can also cause birth defects. What are they?
1) deficits in:
- IQ
- motor skills
- reaction time
- attention spam
- math skills
1) impulsive, anti-social and delinquent behaviour
29
What are some maternal illnesses harmful to the fetus?
- rubella, syphilis, mumps, smallpox, severe cases of flu, AIDS, HIV, herpes
30
How can herpes affect the fetus?
- microcephaly, paralysis, deafness, blindness and brain damage
31
How does air pollution affect the fetus?
- it can cause impairments in cognitive development at the age of five
32
how can chemicals from flame-retardant materials affect the fetus?
- slower mental and physical development up through age 6
33
What is parental health care?
- it begins during the early stages of pregnancy, and it is for guidance
- linked to higher survival rates and reduced prematurity
- many women don't have access to parental health care due to poverty
34
What is motor development?
- refers to progress in muscle coordination needed for physical activity
35
What is the cephalocaudal trend?
- the head to foot direction motor development
| - babies tend to gain control over their upper bodies before the lower part.
36
What is the proximodistal trend?
- it is the centre-outward direction of motor development
| - children tend to gain control over their torso before their extremities
37
What is maturation?
- the gradual unfolding of one's genetic blueprint
| - it is the genetically programmed physical changes that come with age
38
what is the developmental norms?
- the median age at which individuals start to show various behaviours and abilities.
- they are only useful benchmarks
39
What does cultural variations say about motor development
- it varies, some countries like Kenya have earlier motor development than babies in North America because they train their children to walk and stand up sooner
- but the similarities among cultures outweigh the differences, illustrating the important of maturation
40
What does temperament mean?
refers to characteristic mood, activity and emotional reactivity.
41
Compare longitudinal and cross-sectional designs.
longitudinal = investigators observed one group of participants over and over again over a period of time
cross-section designs = investigators compare groups of participants of differing age at a single point in time
42
When is temperamental individuality established by?
2-3 months of age
43
What did Thomas, Chess and Birch establish?
- identified 3 different temperament styles
44
What are the 3 temperament styles Thomas, Chess and Birch came up with?
1) easy (40%) = happy, regular in sleeping and eating, adaptable, not readily upset
2) slow to warm up (15%) = less cheery, less regular in sleeping and eating, less adaptable and moderate reactivity
3) difficult (10%) = glum, erratic in sleeping and eating, resistant to change and relatively irritable.
4) Mixed (35%) = mixtures of three styles
45
difficult children tend to have more _______
emotional problems
46
What design did Thomas, Chess and Birch use on their research?
Longitudinal, relying on parents report.
47
How did Kagan and Snidman classify temperament in children?
- inhibited (15%-20%) = shy, timid and wary of the unfamiliar
- uninhibited (25%-30%) = less restraint to the unfamiliar and little trepidation
48
Inhibited children are more like to develop?
problem with anxiety during adolescence
49
Inhibited and uninhibited temperaments are generally ______ & _____
stable & genetically based
50
What is the cohort effect?
- when differences between age groups are due to groups growing up in different time periods.
51
Which design is more sensitive to developmental changes?
- longitudinal
52
what is attachment?
refers to the close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers
53
What is separation anxiety?
- it is the emotional distressed experienced by an infant when the person they have grown attachment to are separated from them.
54
What did Ainsworth contribute to the study of attachment?
- she developed a research paradigm to study attachment using
separation anxiety as a form of measurement
- she did the strange situation procedure
55
What are the different types of attachment?
- secure
- anxious-ambivalent
- avoidant
- disorganized/disoriented
56
What is the strange situation procedure?
- infants are exposed to eight episodes of separations and reunions to asses the quality of their attachment
57
What is the secured attachment?
- when babies play and explore comfortability when the mom is present and become visibly upset when the mom is gone and returns to normal when the mom comes back
58
what is the anxious-ambivalent attachment?
- when the infant shows anxiety even when the mom is around and protest excessively when the mom leaves BUT isn't comforted upon the return of the mom.
59
What is avoidant attachment?
- when babies seek little contact with their mothers and aren't distressed when they leave.
60
According to Ainsworth, most babies exude what type of attachment?
secured attachment
61
Babies are who are securely attached are often?
resilient, competent toddlers with high self-esteem
62
In preschool, children who are securely attached are?
- self-reliant
- show leadership
- get along better with peers
- curious
- persistent
63
In middle school, children who are securely attached are?
- able to display better social skills and have better friendship networks
64
Early attachments are believe to set tone for?
adult romantic relationships
65
Does bonding at birth influence secure attachment?
no
66
Are day cares harmful to the development of secure attachment?
- no they actually have beneficial effects on social development of children from deprived backgrounds
67
What does culture have to say about attachment
- though attachment is a universal feature of human development, there are actually variations
- eg. Germans tend to practice independence, therefore facilitating avoidant attachment
- the concept or idea of a "secured attachment" varies cross-culturally
68
What is a disorganized/disoriented attachment?
- when babies are confused about wether they should approach or avoid their mother
- they are often insecure
69
What does Bowlby (evolutionist) say about theory?
- that attachment is a function of natural selection.
| - babies have been programmed to emit behaviours that trigger affectionate and protective responses in adults
70
What does Belsky say about attachment? (evolutionist)
- he thinks children have been programmed by evolution to respsond to sensitive and insensitive care with different attachment patterns
71
what is a stage?
a developmental period of time in which characteristics of behaviour rare shown and certain capacities are established
72
What does stage theory say?
- individuals progress through stages in order
- progress though stages is related to age
- that development is marked by discontinuities that cause drastic changes in behaviour
73
What is the Erikson Stage Theory
- an 8 stage theory spanning the lifespan in which each stage consists of a psychological crisis an individual goes through
74
What is the first stage of the Erikson Stage Theory?
- first year of life
- deals with "trust vs. mistrust": is my world predictable and supportive
- are the child's needs being taken care of its caregivers
75
What is the second stage of the Erikson stage theory? What is the important event in this stage?
- second and third year of life
- deals with "autonomy vs. shame and doubt"
- child needs to gain a sense of personal control over physical skills. and a sense of independence
- toilet training
- if child succeeds = feeling of autonomy
- if child fails = feelings of shame and self-doubt
76
What is the third stage of the Erikson stage theory? What age group is involved in this stage? What is the important event here?
- age 3 - 5
- deals with initiative vs. guilt
- child must be able to assert power and control over the environment.
- success in this stage = sense of purpose
- failure in this stage (too controlling and can't follow) = feeling of guilt
- exploration
77
What is the fourth stage in the Erikson Stage Theory? What age group is involved in this stage? What is the important event here?
- age 6-11
- deals with industry vs inferiority
- child must be able to follow with new social and academic demands
- success = competence
- failure = feeling of inferiority
- school
78
What is the fifth stage in the Erikson Stage Theory? What age group is involved in this stage? What is the important event here?
- age 12 - 18
- deals with identity vs role confusion
- teen needs to develop a sense of personal and self identity
- success = knowing oneself
- failure = confusion and weak sense of self
- social relationships
79
What is the sixth stage in the Erikson Stage Theory? What age group is involved in this stage? What is the important event here?
- age 19-40
- deals with intimacy vs. isolation
- young adult must form loving, intimate relationships with other people
- success = strong relationships
- failure = loneliness and isolation
- relationship
80
what is the seventh stage in the Erikson Stage Theory? What age group is involved in this stage? What is the important event here?
- age 40-65
- deals with "generativity vs self absorption"
- adult must be able to nurture things that will outlast them, often by making children or doing positive things that will benefit others
- success = feeling of usefulness and accomplishment
- failure = shallow involvement in the world
- work and parenthood
81
What is the eighth stage in the Erikson Stage Theory? What age group is involved in this stage? What is the important event here?
- age 65 - death
- deals with integrity vs despair
- older adults need to look back on their life and feel a sense of fulfilment
- success = feelings of wisdom
- failure = bitterness, despair, regret
82
Define cognitive development
- It refers to the transition in youngters' pattern of thinking, including reasonings, remembering and problem solving
83
What did Piaget contribute to cognitive development?
- asserted that interaction between environment and maturation alters the way children think.
- This progression of thinking occurs though the process of assimilation and accommodation
84
Compare assimilation and accommodation
- assimilation = interpreting new information in terms of existing mental structures without changing them
- accommodation = changing your existing mental structures to explain new experiences
85
What are the four stages of the Piage stage theory
1) Sensorimotor
2) Preoperational
3) Concrete operational
4) Formal operational
86
What happens in sensorimotor stage? What age group experiences this?
- child learns object permanence = when a child recognizes the object still exists even if it is no longer visible
- birth to age 2
87
What happens in the preoperational stage? What age group experiences this?
- children engage in symbiotic thoughts with characteristic flaws such as:
1) failure to understand conservation
2) centration
3) irreversibility
4) egocentrism
- age 2 - 7
88
What is concentration?
awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of the changes in shape and appearance
89
What is centration?
only focusing on one aspect of the problem
90
What is irreversibility?
the failure to envision things in reverse action
| eg.
91
what is egocentrism?
- the limited ability to share another person's viewpoint
92
What is animism?
- a notable feature of egocentrism
| - the belief that all things are living just like oneself
93
What happens in the concrete operational stage?
- children are able to perform operations with symbiotic thoughts such as reversing an action or mentally undoing an action, able to focus on more than one aspect of the problem (decentration) which leads to understanding concentration,
94
What happens in the formal operational stage?
- individuals are able to apply operations to abstract concepts such as love, justice and free will
95
What contributions did Vygotsky offer to the study of cognitive development?
- that cognitive development is is fuelled by social interactions with parents, older children, and teachers who provide guidance.
- came up with Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
96
What is the ZPD
- the zone of proximal development
- the gap between what a learner can achieve and what they can achieve with guidance from skilled partners
- it is the area that needs more focus on or working on
97
What is scaffolding?
- when the assistance provided to a child is adjusted as learning progresses
- less and less assistance is given as the child's competence in a task increases
98
What are the different types of conservation?
conservation of number
conservation of mass
conservation of length
conservation of area
99
What is habituation?
in the presence of continuous stimuli, the strength of the chid's decreases
- heart rate decreases, respiration rate decreases and they spent less time looking at the
100
What is dishabituation?
- when new stimuli increases the strength of habituated response
101
What to nativist theorists say about cognitive development?
the people are prewired to understand concepts without making any assumptions as to why they are prewired in these ways.
102
What are critical periods?
- limited time span when it is optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the organism is especially responsive to certain experiences.
- if the ability is not acquired at that point, it is impossible to acquire it later.
103
What are sensitive periods
an optimal period for acquisition but doesn't necessarily mean it can't be acquired later on.
104
What does the six-month threshold say in cognitive development
exposure to deprivation within less than 6 months = little impairment
exposure to deprivation within 6 months or more = impairment
105
What is the theory of mind?
it examines the development of children's understanding about the mind and mental states and how children understand the beliefs, thinkings, knowledge, feelings of other people
106
What is the false-belief method?
it highlights the inability of a child to realize that other children will have a different point of view.
eg. the candy trick
usually children at the age of 4 and above have an understanding of false belief
107
What is the interpretive theory of mind?
the mind creatively constructs and uniquely interprets reality
108
What did Kohlberg contribute to research regarding moral reasoning?
- he designed an experiment where subjects are exposed to several moral dilemmas and Kohlberg would observe their moral reasonings
- he then came up with a stage theory composed of three levels each divided into two sub levels. In total there are 6 stages.
109
What are the 3 main levels of Kohlber's Stage theory?
1) Preconventionaal = punishment orientation and naive reward orientation
2) Conventional = good boy/good girl orientation and the authority orientation
3) Postconventional = social contract orientation and the individual principles and conscience orientation
110
Explain the preconvential stage of Kohlberg's Stage Theory
1) Punishment orientation = the right or wrong is determined by what is punished
2) Naive reward orientation = right or wrong is determined by what is rewarded
111
Explain the conventional stage of Kohlberg's stage theory?
1) Good girl/good boy orientation = where right and wrong is determined by close others' approval and disapproval
2) Authority orientation = where right and wrong are determined by society's rules and law which need to be obeyed rigidly
112
Explain the postconventional stage of Kohlberg's stage theory?
1) Social contract orientation = right and wrong is determined by society's rules which are viewed as fallible rather than absolute
2) Individual principles and conscience orientation = right and wrong is determined by abstract ethical principles that emphasize equality and justice
113
Define pubescence
it is the two year span preceding puberty where the changes to physical and sexual maturity takes place.
- secondary sex characteristics develop here
114
what are secondary sex characteristics?
any physical features that aren't essential in reproduction
115
what is puberty?
the stage during which sexual functions reach maturity, marking the start of adolescence
- primary sex characteristics develop fully here
116
What are primary sex characteristics?
structures necessary for sexual reproduction
117
What is menarche? and when does it occur
- menstruation
| - it signals the onset of female puberty
118
What signals the onset of male puberty?
sperm reproduction
119
When does maturation usually occur for boys and girls?
11 - 16 for boys
10-15 for girls
120
What are early maturing girls and late maturing boys linked to?
psychological problems and social difficulties
121
What is the white matter of the brain responsible for?
- development of smooth flow through the braine
122
What is the grey matter responsible for?
- the thinking part of the brain composed of neurones and their branch-like extensions
123
What part of the brain develops the latest?
- the prefrontal cortex
124
What does peer influence have to do with an individual's behaviour
- it increases risky behaviour
125
Which sex is linked to higher completed suicide rate? why?
- males
| - because when they think commit suicide they often use the most lethal way
126
Which sex is linked to higher attempted suicide rates? why?
- females
| - because females tend to use less lethal ways to commit suicide
127
According to Erikson, what is they key challenge in adolescence?
- finding one's self or having a sense of self identity
128
What did James Marcia say about identity?
- that the presence or absence of commitment and crisis during identity development can combine in different ways to produce 4 different identity statuses
129
What are the four identity statuses Marcia came up with?
1) Identity foreclosure
2) Identity moratorium
3) Identity diffusion
4) Identity achievement
130
What is the identity foreclosure?
- premature commitment to a role usually prescribed by the parents
131
What is the identity moratorium?
- delaying commitments to roles and engaging in experimentation with different roles
132
What is the identity diffusion?
- the state of lack of direction and interest
| - person does not confront the challenge and commit to an ideology
133
What is identity achievement?
- arriving at a sense of self and direction after some consideration of alternative possibilities
- linked to higher self-esteem, conscientiousness, security, achievement motivation and capacity for intimacy
134
The presence of crisis and commitment results to what identity?
identity achievement
135
The presence of crises and absence of commitment results to what identity?
identity moratorium
136
the absence of crisis and presence commitment results into what identity?
- identity foreclosure
137
The absence of crisis and commitment results to what identity?
identity diffusion
138
According to Marcia's four identity statuses, which ones depict a more mature identity status
- identity achievement and moratorium
139
According to Arnett, what is emerging adulthood?
- the age of feeling in-between
140
Personality development is marked by what?
stability and change, as adulthood is a period of many transitions
141
Adults who move through Erikson's stage successfully develop?
intimacy, generativity and integrity
142
what makes adjusting to marriage difficult?
differing role expectations
143
Where is marital satisfaction the highest in the family cycle?
the beginning and end
144
Adjusting to parenthood goes by more smoothly if?
unrealistic goals are not held
145
What has been found out about the empty nest syndrome
that adjusting to this situation (children leaving home) isn't as stressful as many believe
146
Vocational development tends to proceed through stages of what?
exploration of careers, establishing of careers, maintaining and decline
147
What are the age related physical changes that occur?
change in appearance, neurone loss, sensory loss and hormonal changes
148
What has researched proved about menopausal?
that it's not as problematic as most thought
149
What is dementia?
an abnormal condition marked by multiple cognitive deficits that include memory impairment
150
What causes dementia?
can be caused by Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, AIDS, Parkinson's disease
151
Is dementia an age related disease?
no
152
What is the alzheimer's disease?
its the widespread loss of neurones and brain tissues and accumulation of neuronal abnormalities called neuritic plaque and neurofibrillary tangles.
153
What does cognitive function research say about adulthood?
that general mental ability remains fairly stable with slight decline in IQ after age of 60
- fluid intelligence (basic information-processing skill) tend to decline more than crystallized intelligence (applying acquired knowledge)
154
In terms of cognitive abilities, female _____ and males ______.
females have slightly better verbal skills
males are slightly better in math
155
In terms of personality and behaviour, which sex scores better in measures of extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness and neuroticism?
- females
156
In terms of personality and behaviour, which sex is more physically aggressive?
males
157
In terms of personality and behaviour, which sex exhibits relational aggression?
females
158
In terms of personality and behaviour, which sex has the higher sex drive?
- men
159
In terms of personality and behaviour, which sex is more open to idea of casual sex?
males
160
In terms of personality and behaviour, which sex are more sensitive to subtle nonverbal cues?
females
161
females exposed to higher levels of androgens prenatally are more likely to show?
male-typical behaviour than other females
162
males who are exposed to low levels of androgens prenatally are more like to show?
- female-type behaviour than other males
163
which sex has the larger corpus callosom?
females
164
Which sex depends more on their left hemisphere for verbal processing and right hemisphere for spatial processing? (cerebral specialization)
males
165
define socialization
acquisition of the norms and behaviours expected of people in a particular society
166
define gender roles?
the expectations about what is appropriate behaviour for each sex.
167
What are the environmental origins of gender differences?
- operant conditioning = eg. rewarded if boys inhibit crying because they are told that "big boys don't cry"
- observational learning = children tend to imitate older people of the same sex. eg. girls play with dolls etc.
- socialization (school, family, media)
