Chapter 2 - The Scientific Approach Flashcards
1
Q
Stakeholders are:
A
people (individuals, groups) whose interests affect or are affected by an organization’s decision and its outcomes
2
Q
Identifying stakeholders:
A
– Who could affect the decision and associated actions/results?
– Who could be affected by the decision?
– Who could be harmed by the decision?
– Who stands to benefit from the decision?
3
Q
What to consider with stakeholders
A
- interests
- concerns
- feelings
- perceptions
- power and influence
- rights (legal and moral)
4
Q
USEFUL QUESTIONS TO ASSESS THE POSITION OF
STAKEHOLDERS
A
- Who are the key stakeholders?
- How important do they think the project is and why?
- What type of information do we need from various stakeholders?
- Are they willing and able to provide us with the necessary information?
- What are their objectives, tasks and responsibilities?
- What are their objectives in relation to the project?
- What are their ideas and feelings about the project?
- Are they open to change?
- Are they emotionally involved?
- What do various stakeholders have to lose in the course of the project?
- Will that lead to resistance? How problematic is that? How will this affect the process?
5
Q
Business ethics
A
addresses the application of moral principles and ethical standards to human actions in the exchange process
6
Q
research ethics
A
Ethical obligations of Researcher, Client/Decision maker, Participant
7
Q
Researcher Obligations
A
- Maintain scientific rigour
- Confidentiality
- Search for truth
- Arrive at a consensus “reason” for research
- Admit research limitations
- Present results understandably
7
Q
Decision maker Obligations (Research)
A
- Educate oneself
- Establish budget
- Give due consideration to results of the research
- Arrive at a consensus “reason” for research
- Have realistic expectations
- Pay on time
8
Q
Participants Obligations (Research)
A
– Voluntary (and full) participation
– Faithful participation
– Honesty
– Privacy
9
Q
Participants Rights (Research)
A
– Informed consent
– Withdrawal from the study without consequences
– Freedom not to answer questions
– Confidential and (if possible) anonymous participation
10
Q
TCPS 2 core principles
A
– Respect for persons
– Concern for welfare
– Justice
11
Q
Four important questions to consider:
A
– Will the research cause harm to the participants?
– Will the participants provide informed consent?
– Will there be an invasion of privacy?
– Is deception involved?
12
Q
Who did the Stanford prison experiment
A
Haney, Banks, & Zimbardo
13
Q
When was the Stanford Prison Experiment
A
1973
14
Q
When was the Milgram experiment
A
1963
15
Q
What is harm?
A
– Physical harm
– Harm to development
– Harm to self-esteem
– Stress
– Harm to career prospects
– Harm to future employment
– Harm to existing relationships
16
Q
To the extent that it can be, the possibility
of harm should be minimized
True or False
A
True
17
Q
Consent shall be:
A
– Informed
– Given voluntarily
––– Free from undue influence and coercion
– An ongoing process
––– Can also be withdrawn at any time
18
Q
What is Privacy
A
An individual’s right to be free from intrusion or interference by others
19
Q
Confidentiality
A
The responsibility of an individual, group, or organization to safeguard entrusted information
20
Q
Deception
A
Deception occurs when researchers represent their research as
something other than what it is (e.g., includes false
information about the study or participant)
21
Q
debriefing
A
Disclosing the true purpose of the research
22
Q
It is rarely feasible or desirable to provide participants with a complete account of what your research is about
A
Complete transparency in research may not always be feasible or desirable when dealing with participants.
23
Q
The Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans (TCPS or the Policy) is a joint policy of Canada’s three federal research agencies.
What are the three agencies?
A
- the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR)
- the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC)
- the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC)
24
consent
means "free, informed and ongoing consent." For the purpose of this Policy, "free" and "voluntary" are used interchangeably.
25
General Principles of consent
- Consent shall be given voluntarily.
- Consent can be withdrawn at any time.
- If a participant withdraws consent, the participant can also request the withdrawal of their data or human biological materials.
26
Undue influence
Undue influence and manipulation may arise when prospective participants are recruited by individuals in a position of authority.
27
Coercion
Coercion is a more extreme form of undue influence, involving a threat of harm or punishment for failure to participate
28
Incentives
Incentives are anything offered to participants, monetary or otherwise, for participation in research
29
Determination of materiality
To determine whether an incidental finding is material, expertise relevant to the finding is required.
30
Management of foreseeable and non-foreseeable material incidental findings
Incidental findings can occur in various research types, especially in genetic/genomic and imaging studies.
31
Consent and departures from
Upon discovery of a material incidental finding, the principle of Concern for Welfare places an obligation on researchers to share it with the relevant participants.
32
Exceptions to the obligation to disclose
Researchers may also request an exception to their obligation to disclose material incidental findings, based on the impracticability or impossibility of disclosing such findings to the participant
33
Research involving partial disclosure or deception
Some social science research, particularly in psychology, seeks to learn about human responses to situations that have been created experimentally. Some types of research can be carried out only if the participants do not know the true purpose of the research in advance
34
Participants' vulnerability
In considering the need for an alteration to consent requirements, researchers and REBs should also consider whether the prospective participants (as individuals, groups or populations) are in circumstances that may make them vulnerable in the context of research
35
Population and public health research
due to the nature of the research question and the need to test interventions that operate at the population level, some population and public health studies cannot be done with prior informed consent
36
debreifing
Where alterations to consent have been used, debriefing is important in maintaining the participant's trust in the research community
37
Post-debriefing option to withdraw data and/or human biological materials
At the time of debriefing, participants should, whenever possible, practicable and appropriate, be able to indicate their consent/assent or their refusal for the continued use of their data or human biological materials
38
Exception to the requirement to debrief
There may be circumstances in which debriefing is impossible, impracticable or inappropriate in research involving alterations to consent requirements
39
Appropriate Inclusion
Researchers should be inclusive in selecting participants, considering the scope and objectives of their research. Exclusion based on attributes like culture, language, religion, etc., is not allowed unless valid reasons exist.
40
Privacy
Privacy is a fundamental right, encompassing an individual's freedom from intrusion or interference in various aspects, including personal information, thoughts, communications, and physical spaces.
41
Confidentiality
The ethical duty of confidentiality refers to the obligation of an individual or organization to safeguard entrusted information
42
Security
Security refers to measures used to protect information. It includes physical, administrative, and technical safeguards
43
Identifiable Information
Researchers must assess whether the information they collect could reasonably identify an individual when collecting, using, sharing, or accessing participant data.
44
Directly identifying information
the information identifies a specific individual through direct identifiers (e.g., name, social insurance number, personal health number).
45
Indirectly identifying information
the information can reasonably be expected to identify an individual through a combination of indirect identifiers (e.g., date of birth, place of residence or unique personal characteristic).
46
Coded information
Direct identifiers are replaced with a code in data, but re-identification is possible if someone has access to the code (e.g., the principal investigator keeps a list linking codes to actual names).
47
Anonymized information
the information is irrevocably stripped of direct identifiers, a code is not kept to allow future re-linkage, and risk of re-identification of individuals from remaining indirect identifiers is low or very low.
48
Anonymous information
the information never had identifiers associated with it (e.g., anonymous surveys) and risk of identification of individuals is low or very low.
49
How is knowledge established?
- Personal experience
- Tradition
- Authority
- Rationalism (logic)
- Formal, systematic, empirical research
–- The scientific approach
–- Alternative approaches
50
The Hallmarks of Scientific Research
– Purposiveness
– Rigor
– Testability
– Replicability
– Precision and confidence
– Objectivity
– Generalizability
– Parsimony
– Empirical: Based on careful (systematic, rigorous) observations or experiments, not only on ideas or theory
51
Steps in hypothetico-deductive research:
– Observation (identify a broad problem area)
– Gather preliminary information (to define the problem more specifically)
– Theory formulation
– Hypothesizing
– Determine measures & methods
– Data collection
– Data analysis
– Interpretation of data
52
Examples of The Scientific Approach
– Performance appraisal and employee development
– Paradox: Specific, individual vs. broad, comparative
– Social comparison theory and rater information processing
– Rating-scale design can improve feedback-related rating accuracy
– Accuracy measures (raters’ vs. “true” scores; Cronbach, 1955)
– Undergraduates, lab experiment
– Quantitative (MANOVA)
– Some support, but trade-offs
53
Deductive Research
– General → specific
– Testing theories
--- Testing hypotheses derived from theories
– Used in causal research
– Uses the hypotheticodeductive steps
54
Inductive Research
Inductive:
– Specific → general
– Insights from specific data (e.g., observations)
– Looking for patterns
– Exploratory research
– Theory-building
--- NOT testing
55
Is 100% absolute certainty in all contexts at all times a
defining feature of science.
No.
Business research and many other fields deal with
probabilities, not certainties
56
If research cannot be 100% certain, why bother to do it at all?
Uncertain knowledge is better than ignorance
57
Approaches to Research
- Critical Realism
- Pragmatism
58
Critical Realism
– Believe in external reality (objective truth)
– Observations are subject to interpretation
– “Critical of our ability to understand the world with certainty” (p. 24)
– Triangulation across methods
59
Pragmatism
– Focus on practical, applied research
– Research on both objective and subjective phenomena can be useful
– Truth as tentative
– Theories and concepts as tools
– Eclecticism and pluralism across perspectives
60
2880 Approaches to Research
a mainstream perspective
61
a mainstream perspective
– Reality exists independent of our efforts to understand it.
– Observations, facts, & concepts are subjective & value-laden, but not completely fallible.
– Business research is often focused on practical issues and values multiple perspectives and methods, depending on the research questions being investigated.
62
Indicators of Good Research
* Subjectivities have been managed
– Objectivity ~ neutrality; subjectivity with transparency
* Methods are approached with consistency
– Reliability ~ dependability
* The “true essence” has been captured
– Validity ~ authenticity
* Findings are applicable beyond the immediate context
– External validity/generalizability ~ transferability
* The research can be verified
– Reproducibility ~ auditability
63
A Pragmatic Approach to Research
* Inform thinking, decision-making, and action
planning & implementation
* Principal activities of business:
– Intelligence
– Operations
– Strategy development
* Reactive or proactive
* Sample steps for doing research in and for
organizations
64
Explain what is meant by scientific
investigation, giving examples of both scientific and nonscientific investigations.
Scientific research is problem-solving, using a systematic, logical, rigorous approach to gather, analyze data, and draw valid conclusions. Its distinguishing characteristics include purpose, rigor, testability, replicability, objectivity, and precision, promoting generalizability and parsimony.
65
Discuss alternative perspectives on
what makes good research.
Research is shaped by individual beliefs about the world and how knowledge is acquired, influencing research questions, design, and methods.
66
Describe the hallmarks of scientific research.
The hallmarks of scientific research include purpose, rigor, testability, replicability, precision, objectivity, generalizability, and parsimony. These characteristics define the scientific method and ensure systematic, reliable inquiry.
67
Explain the processes of deduction and induction, giving an
example of each.
-Deduction moves from general premises to specific conclusions with certainty
-Induction moves from specific observations to general, probable conclusions.
For example, deductive reasoning concludes that Socrates is mortal based on the premise that all humans are mortal. Inductive reasoning suggests that all swans are probably white based on observations, but exceptions are possible. Deduction guarantees truth if premises are true, while induction provides probable but not certain conclusions.
68
Discuss the following statement: ‘Good research is deductive in
nature’.
Good research is not exclusively deductive. While deductive reasoning is important for hypothesis testing and theory confirmation, research can also be inductive or use mixed methods. The choice of method depends on research goals and questions. Deduction is just one approach, and good research aligns the method with the research objectives.
69
Discuss the following statement: ‘The hallmarks of scientific
research do not/cannot apply to inductive research’.
The statement that "The hallmarks of scientific research do not/cannot apply to inductive research" is inaccurate. These hallmarks, including rigor, objectivity, testability, replicability, precision, and generalizability, are applicable to both deductive and inductive research. Scientific research encompasses various methods, and these principles ensure the quality and credibility of research findings regardless of the approach used.
70
If research in the management area cannot be 100 percent
scientific, why bother to do it at all? Comment on this question.
Management research, although not always strictly scientific, holds value in addressing real-world issues, informing decisions, developing theories, fostering improvement, and considering ethics. Its practical relevance and multidisciplinary nature make it a valuable endeavor despite not always adhering to traditional scientific standards.
71
What is epistemology and why is it important to know about
different perspectives on research and how it should be done?
Epistemology, a branch of philosophy, examines how knowledge is acquired and justified. Knowing diverse perspectives on research and epistemological views is vital for researchers as it guides method selection, informs ethics, influences data interpretation, and forms the philosophical basis for research. This knowledge encourages self-awareness and collaboration, enhancing research quality and rigor.
72
Discuss the most important differences between positivism and
pragmatism.
Positivism and pragmatism differ in their views on reality, knowledge, research methods, theory, subjectivity, and goals. Positivism seeks objective, universal laws using quantitative methods and values theory. Pragmatism prioritizes practical utility, employs various methods, embraces subjectivity, and aims to solve real-world problems. Researchers choose their approach based on their research questions and objectives.
73
scientific investigation
A step‐by‐step, logical, organized, and rigorous effort to solve
problems.
74
rigor
The theoretical and methodological precision adhered to in
conducting research.
75
hypothesis
A tentative, yet testable, statement that predicts what you expect
to find in your empirical data.
76
Testability
The ability to subject the data collected to appropriate statistical
tests, in order to substantiate or reject the hypotheses developed
for the research study.
77
Replicability
The extent to which a re‐study is made possible by the provision
of the design details of the study in the research report.
78
Precision
The degree of closeness of the estimated sample characteristics to
the population parameters, determined by the extent of the
variability of the sampling distribution of the sample mean.
79
Confidence
The probability estimate of how much reliance can be placed on
the findings; the usual accepted level of confidence in social
science research is 95%.
80
Objectivity
Interpretation of the results on the basis of the results of data
analysis, as opposed to subjective or emotional interpretations.
81
Generalizability
The applicability of research findings in one setting to others.
82
Parsimony
Efficient explanation of the variance in the dependent variable of
interest through the use of a smaller, rather than a larger number
of independent variables.
83
hypothetico-deductive method
A seven‐step research process of identifying a broad problem
area, defining the problem statement, developing hypotheses,
determining measures, data collection, data analysis, and the
interpretation of data.
84
deductive research
A research approach aimed at testing theory.
85
Inductive research
A research approach where we observe specific phenomena and
on this basis arrive at general conclusions.
86
ontology
The philosophical study of what can be said to exist.
87
epistemology
Theory about the nature of knowledge or how we come to know.
88
positivism
A school of thought employing deductive laws and quantitative
methods to get at the truth. For a positivist, the world operates by
laws of cause and effect that one can discern if one uses a
scientific approach to research.
89
constructionism
An approach to research that is based on the idea that the world
as we know it is fundamentally mental or mentally constructed.
Constructionists aim to understand the rules people use to make sense of the world by investigating what happens in people’s
minds.
90
critical realism
A school of thought combining the belief in an external reality (an
objective truth) with the rejection of the claim that this external
reality can be objectively measured. The critical realist is critical
of our ability to understand the world with certainty.
91
pragmatism
A viewpoint on research that does not take on a particular
position on what makes good research. Pragmatists feel that
research on both objective, observable phenomena and subjective meanings can produce useful knowledge, depending on the
research questions of the study.
