Coordination Flashcards
(118 cards)
1
Q
_____ cells produce detect the rise in blood glucose level and produce insulin.
A
Beta cells of islets of langerhans of the pancreas
2
Q
Insulin is ______ hormone.
A
Peptide
3
Q
Different hormone types
A
- Amine
- Peptide
- Steroid
4
Q
_____ cells produce glucagon
A
Alpha cells of islets of langerhans of the pancreas
5
Q
Glucagon is a _____ hormone
A
Peptide
6
Q
_______ produce and secrete adrenaline
A
Adrenal medulla
7
Q
How does adrenal medulla know when to secrete adrenaline?
A
the hypothalamus sends a nerve impulse to it
8
Q
When does the hypothalamus send the nerve impulse to the adrenal medulla to secrete adrenaline?
A
When sensory receptors send info of danger to the hypothalamus
9
Q
Adrenaline is _______ hormone.
A
Amine
10
Q
Two corticoid types and examples
A
- Mineral corticoid (Aldosterone)
- Glucocorticoids (Cortisol)
11
Q
Corticoids are produced and secreted by _______
A
Adrenal cortex
12
Q
Corticoid pathway
A
. Sensory neurons detect long term stress and alert the hypothalamus
. The hypothalamus produces corticotropin releasing hormones (CRH)
. CRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to produce adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
. ACTH stimulates adrenal cortex to release corticoids
13
Q
Cortisol is a _____ hormone
A
Steroid (corticoid**)
14
Q
Aldosterone is a______ hormone
A
Steroid
15
Q
What does aldosterone do?
A
Aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption, and potassium secretion at the distal convoluted tubule, thus increasing blood pressure and blood volume.
16
Q
What does cortisol do?
A
Cortisol has a metabolic (proteins, and lipid into glucose) and anti-inflammatory effect.
17
Q
Corticotropin releasing hormone is produced and released by _______
A
Hypothalamus
18
Q
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is produced and secreted by ________
A
Anterior pituitary
19
Q
T3 and T4 are _______ hormones.
A
Amine
20
Q
Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) are __________ hormones.
A
Peptide
21
Q
What are effects of T3 and T4?
A
Increase metabolism, maintain blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tone, digestive, and reproductive functions.
22
Q
T3/ T4 pathway
A
. Hypothalamus detects low T3 and T4 levels so it produces thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
. TRH stimulates anterior pituitary gland to produce thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
. TSH stimulates thyroid gland to produce T3/T4.
. Normal level of T3/T4 stops the hypothalamus from releasing TRH.
23
Q
Vasopressin is a _____ hormone
A
Peptide
24
Q
Which part(s) of the body secrete and produce ADH?
A
Hypothalamus produces ADH.
Posterior pituitary gland stores and secretes ADH.
25
What does ADH do?
ADH adds aquaporins to collecting duct thus increasing water reabsorption.
26
RAAS stands for
Renin angiotensin aldosterone system
27
FSH is a _____ hormone.
Peptide
28
LH is a _____ hormone.
Peptide
29
Estradiol is a _____ hormone.
Steroid
30
Progesterone is a _______ hormone.
Steroid
31
Inhibin is a _____ hormone.
Peptide
32
Gonadotropin releasing hormone is a _____ hormone.
Peptide
33
GnRH is released and produced by ______
Hypothalamus
34
What does GnRH do?
GnRH stimulates anterior pituitary gland to produce FSH and LH.
35
What does FSH do in males and females?
In male, FSH stimulates Sertoli cells for Spermatogenesis.
In females, FSH stimulates granulosa cells to grow, and increase estradiol by producing aromatase enzymes.
36
What does LH do in females, and males?
. In males, LH stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone.
. In females, LH stimulates ovulation, and theca cells to produce testosterone.
37
Which cells produce inhibin?
Sertoli cells in males, and lutein cells of the corpus luteum in females.
38
The hormones that are produced by the hypothalamus but stored in the posterior pituitary gland
Oxytocin and vasopressin
39
What are GHRH, GHIH, PRH, PIH and where are they produced?
Growth hormone releasing hormone, Growth hormone inhibiting hormone, Prolactin releasing hormone, and prolactin inhibiting hormone
Hypothalamus
40
Where is prolactin produced?
Anterior pituitary
41
Where is growth hormone produced?
Anterior pituitary
42
Where is calcitonin produced and what does it do?
It is produced by thyroid glands, and it reduces calcium level in blood.
43
Where is parathyroid hormone produced, and what type of hormone is it, and what does it do?
Parathyroid gland
Peptide hormones
Increase calcium level in blood
44
There are _____ (how many) parathyroid glands.
Four
45
What does endocrine, paracrine, juxtacrine, autocrine, and exocrine signaling mean?
Endocrine: signaling molecules travel considerably longer distances.
Paracrine: signaling molecules travel a short distance to nearby cells.
Juxtacrine: close contact between two cells.
Autocrine: molecules are secreted by and bind to the same cell.
Exocrine: ducts
46
Thyroid is a _____ hormone but acts like a _____ hormone.
Thyroid is an amine hormone but acts like a steroid hormone.
Explanation: it is lipid soluble and binds to intracellular receptors.
47
Progesterone ______ GnRH
Inhibits
48
Progesterone inhibits. ______
GnRH
49
Inhibin inhibits ________
FSH
50
Inhibin is produced by ______ in females.
Lutein cells of corpus luteum
51
__________ produce estradiol.
Secondary follicle
Explanation: only the secondary or higher follicle have theca cells to produce testosterone, and granulosa cells to produce aromatase enzymes to convert testosterone to estrogen
52
What does vitreous humour do?
It is a clear gel that helps support the shape and structure of the eye
53
Cones and rods contain ______
Rhodopsin -transmembrane protein-
54
Rhodopsin contains
Retinal and opsin
55
Phototransduction cascade
1. Light hits rhodopsin
2. 11-cis-retinal changes to all-trans-retinal, activating rhodopsin
3. Activated rhodopsin activates the G-protein transducin
4. Transducin activates the enzyme phosphodiesterase (PDE)
5. PDE breaks down cGMP into GMP
6. Low cGMP levels cause sodium channels to close, leading to hyperpolarization of the photoreceptor cell
7. Hyperpolarization reduces glutamate release
8. The decrease in glutamate is detected by bipolar cells, which adjust their signal accordingly
56
________ rod cell (is/are) connected to a single ganglion.
Many
57
________ cone cell(s) is/are connected to a ganglion.
Each
58
Rhodopsin in cone cell is called
Photopsin
59
Pinna is also called
Auricle
60
Auditory canal is also called
External auditory meatus
61
What does Eustachian tube do?
It connects the tympanic cavity (middle ear) to the nasopharynx, allowing pressure equalization.
62
Three chambers of cochlea
1. Scala vestibuli (perilymph)
2. Scala media (endolymph)
3. Scala tympani (perilymph)
63
What does the basilar membrane do?
The basilar membrane separates scalar media and scalar tympani.
64
Where is the basilar membrane?
Between scalar media and scalar tympani
65
The membrane that separates scalar media and scalar tympani.
Basilar membrane
66
Where is the organ of corti?
On the basilar membrane, and in the Scala media
67
Where is the tectorial membrane?
In the Scala media
68
When the vibration reaches the cochlea through the oval window, it makes the ____ membrane vibrate
Basilar
69
The vibration of the basilar membrane causes the _________ opens the ions channel to allow cations to flow into the hair cells, depolarizing them.
Linking filament to stretch and mechanically
70
What is the term that is used to describe the conversion of vibrations to electrical impulses by hair cells in the cochlea?
Mechanoelectrical transduction
71
The combined term to describe olfaction and gustation
Chemosensation
72
What is the basic pathway of smell (olfaction), and how do odor molecules interact with olfactory neurons?
• Odor molecules enter the nasal cavity and reach the olfactory epithelium at the roof of the nasal cavity (in the olfactory region).
• The olfactory epithelium contains olfactory neurons with cilia, support cells, basal cells (stem cells that regenerate olfactory neurons), and mucus (secreted by Bowman’s glands and cells, traps odor molecules).
• Odor molecules dissolve in the mucus and bind to G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) on the cilia.
• This activates a signal cascade that depolarizes the olfactory neuron.
• The signal travels to the olfactory bulb, where the neuron synapses with another neuron (you don’t need to know the name).
• The signal continues through the olfactory tract to the olfactory cortex, and also to the amygdala, hippocampus, and orbitofrontal cortex.
• This explains why smell is linked to memory and emotion.
• 🧪 Note:
• One odor molecule can bind to many types of olfactory neurons.
• One olfactory neuron can respond to multiple odor molecules.
73
What is the basic structure and function of the gustatory (taste) pathway?
• The tongue has rough projections called papillae.
• Most papillae contain taste buds, but filiform papillae do not contain taste buds.
• Taste buds are clusters of specialized cells such as taste cells and supporting cells embedded within the papillae.
• Each taste bud contains multiple taste receptor cells (gustatory cells).
• Each taste cell has microvilli that extend into the taste pore and they contain receptor proteins that detect taste molecules.
• Two main types of receptors:
• G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) — detect sweet, bitter, and umami
• Ion channels — detect sour and salty
• Each taste cell responds to only one type of taste.
• A taste bud contains different types of taste cells and can detect multiple tastes.
• So can papillae that contain taste buds.
74
Action potential is initiated in the _______
Axon hillock
75
The impulses from the presynaptic neuron are accumulated in the ____
Axon hillock
76
Myelin sheath allows ______ conduction
Saltatory
77
________ create myelin sheaths in CNS
Oligodendrocytes
78
________ create myelin sheaths in PNS
Schwann cells
79
Neurons can communicate with each other in following ways
1. Chemical synapse (neurotransmitter) unidirectional
2. Ion channels (gap junction) bidirectional
80
Types of neurons by morphology
1. Unipolar
2. Bipolar
3. Multipolar
4. Pseudo-unipolar
81
Which factors determine the speed of the transmission in neurons?
Axon diameter (Diameter increases, rate of transmission increases)
Axon length
Myelination
Temperature (As T increases, rate of transmission increases)
82
All glial cells
CNS
1. Astrocyte
2. Microglial cells
3. Ependymal cells
4. Oligodendrocytes
PNS
5. Schwann cells
6. Satellite cells
83
There are ______ glial cells than neurons.
10x more
84
Do glial cells transmit signals?
No
85
How do Schwann cells and Oligodendrocytes differ except locating in CNS and PNS?
Oligodendrocytes can myelinate multiple axons. A single axon in CNS can be myelinated by multiple oligodendrocytes.
One Schwann cell can myelinate only one axon.
86
What does Oligodendrocytes do?
Myelinate axons in CNS.
. One oligodendrocyte can myelinate many axons, and a single axon can be myelinated by many oligodendrocytes.
87
What do ependymal cells do?
Line the ventricular system of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. Produce the cerebrospinal fluid.
88
What does microglia do?
They act as macrophages, and are part of the innate immune system of the CNS.
89
What do Schwann cells do?
Myelinate axon in the PNS.
Note: one Schwann cell can myelinate only one axon.
90
What do satellite cells do?
They provide structural support and nutrients to neurons in PNS.
91
The action of certain neurotransmitters causing hyper polarization in neurons is called
Inhibitory post synaptic potential
92
The action of certain neurotransmitters causing depolarization in neurons is called
Excitatory post synaptic potential
93
At resting potential _____ is opened.
Potassium leak channels
94
Resting membrane potential is
-70mV
95
Action potential threshold potential is
-55mV
96
Neurotransmitter types
1. Amino acids (CNS)
2. Biogenic amines
3. Neuropeptides
4. Acetylcholine
97
What is synaptic plasticity?
Synapses are not static; they can strengthen or weaken over time.
Long term potentiation: long term synapse use increases signal transmission between two neurons
Long term depression: long term synapse disuse decreases signal transmission between two neurons
98
Division of the brain
1. Forebrain
2. Midbrain
3. Hindbrain
99
Forebrain components
1. Cerebrum
2. Thalamus
3. Hypothalamus
100
Hindbrain components
1. Medulla
2. Pons
3. Cerebellum
101
Brain stem components
Mid brain
Medulla
Pons
102
Frontal lobe contains
Motor cortex
103
Parietal lobe contains
Somatosensory cortex
104
The structure that connects left and right cerebral hemisphere
Corpus callosum
105
Frontal lobe function and components
Prefrontal cortex: Higher function
Olfactory cortex - Sense of smell
Motor cortex - Voluntary movement
106
Parietal lobe function and components
Function: Sensory perception and integration, proprioception
Components: somatosensory cortex
Tip: parietal lobe is responsible for many sensory tasks
107
Occipital lobe function
Visual cortex - Vision
Tip: remember the optic chiasm diagram
108
Temporal lobe function and important component
Function: Hearing
Component: Hippocampus for memory formation, amygdala for emotional regulation
Tip: Temporal means time so memory formation
Temporal lobe exists in side like your ears so hearing
109
What does thalamus do?
Sort and send data such as sensory and motor input
Note: All sensory info except smell must go through the thalamus before being sent to the cerebral cortex for interpretation.
110
What is the role of hypothalamus?
Homeostasis and endocrine roles
111
Where is the basal ganglia?
Base of the fore brain and top of the midbrain
112
What is the role of the basal ganglia?
**MMLEE**
Movement
Motivation
Learning
Emotion
Eye movements
113
Brain stem function
Vital processes: breathing, circulation, digestion
Sensory and motor info filtration
114
Role of cerebellum
Balance/ coordination
Learning new motor tasks
115
State the location of
Dendrites, soma, synapse, and axon of sensory neuron
Dendrites: sensory receptors
Soma: Dorsal root ganglia (close to the spinal cord)
Synapse: CNS
axon: PNS
116
State the location of
Dendrites, soma, synapse, and axon of motor neuron
Dendrites: CNS
Soma: CNS
Synapse: Neuromuscular junction
axon: PNS
117
Sympathetic nervous system neuron division
1. Pre-ganglionic neuron
. Spinal cord to sympathetic ganglion (near the spinal cord)
. Neurotransmitter used: acetylcholine
2. Post ganglionic neurons
. Sympathetic ganglion to target organ
. Neurotransmitter used: Norepinephrine
118
Parasympathetic nervous system neuron division
1. Pre-ganglionic neuron
. Spinal cord/ brain stem to ganglion near the target organ
. Neurotransmitter used: acetylcholine
2. Post ganglionic neurons
. Ganglion close to target organ to target organ
. Neurotransmitter used: acetylcholine or nitric oxide
