EVERYTHING IDEOLOGIES II Flashcards
(24 cards)
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What are conservative attitudes towards….
Human Nature
- Pessimistic: conservatism is a response to the progressive ideologies of liberalism and socialism. Conservatives believe that humans are fallible and imperfect. Although, as seen below, New Right thinkers are more positive.
- Describe humans as they are, not as they should be. Reject the malleable / plastic view that socialists offer.HN is fixed and constant (immutable).
- There are nuances to this view within the different strands – see table on next page. All believe HN is immutable. All agree with Nozick that enterprising individuals are “freedom loving pack animals” who need restraint of formal authority and communities
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Conservatism differences on human nature
- Traditional: Hobbes:
Pessimistic / sceptical view. There is a gap between aspiration and achievement. Life in the state of nature is “nasty, brutish and short”. HN is ruthlessly selfish, calculating and competitive. Without any form of authority humans would follow a life marked by “envy, hatred and war”.
Burke: Rejects that idea that HN is guided by reason. Mankind is incapable of planning an idealistic society. HN not as brutishly selfish as Hobbes described. Fallible, not terrible. HN capable of kindness, altruism and wisdom as long as their actions were rooted in tradition.
HN not ruthlessly individualistic, but actually communal where individuals gain comfort and support from living in small communities (‘little platoons’)
- One Nation: Oakeshott:
Pessimistic / sceptical view. There is a gap between aspiration and achievement.
HN theory was the essence of conservatism. It was more ‘psychology than ideology’.
An “instinctive preference for what is known, an innate fear of of the uncertain”.
Life without law was “..not so much nasty, brutish and short… but noisy, foolish and flawed”. HN was “fragile and flawed” but also “benign and benevolent”, when framed by routine.
- New Right:
More optimistic view of HN.
Individuals are capable of ‘self-ownership’, (egotistical) they are the sole authors of their talents and abilities and should be left alone to realise them without any government intervention.
However, not completely positive about HN. He felt that the preservation of life, liberty and property could “not be taken for granted” as HN was still capable of negative characteristics such as theft and violence. He therefore argued that there was a need for authority.
He believed self-sufficient communities were necessary to allow people to practice what beliefs they have. This is an updated version of Burke’s little platoon idea.
Rand
She has an objectivist view of human nature. We are guided by rational self- interest and pursuit of self- fulfilment. There is no need for society/community, this is restrictive on individual self- fulfilment.
Both Rand and Nozick believe that individuals are able to flourish in a capitalist, neoliberal
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Conservatism society differences
- Traditional:
Hobbes:
Society is only created when a state comes into being. Otherwise, there is no society in the state of nature.
Burke:
Society is necessary and organic. It is not possible to ‘create’ a perfect society. It is a mysterious being, an organic plant.
Small communities or little platoons are created. These largely autonomous small communities would “acknowledge, nurture and prune…the crooked timber of humanity”.
These follow traditions and customs and are run by hierarchical principles. A ruling class is therefore inevitable and desirable. There is an obligation to look after poorer classes: noblesse oblige/paternalism.
- One Nation:
Oakeshott:
Oakeshott believed the state should be guided by tradition and practical, empirical concerns. Society should be developed along pragmatic, not dogmatic lines.
Society should be developed along the lines of the ‘art of the possible’, rather than looking at grand plans/blueprints
- The New Right:
New Right thinkers are more ambivalent about the existence of a society. They draw on the neo-liberal view of atomised individuals seeking self-determination.
They dislike paternalism – instead individuals should be able to achieve on merit rather than on aristocratic, inherited wealth power and property.
Nozick:
Nozick does acknowledge the existence of society. It should be geared to individual self-fulfilment – and has similarities to Burke’s little platoon idea. Communities should be free to practise their own moral codes.
Rand
Rand is very ambivalent about society. As far as it exists, society should be atomistic. This means it is merely a sum of its individuals. There are millions of autonomous individuals seeking self-fulfilment and self-realisation.
In Atlas Shrugged, she argued that talented individuals lay at the heart of any successful society. Without their energy, society would quickly wither, no matter what governments did.
Individuals should not be restrained by society at all.
7 - LOETHJP
Conservative attitudes towards society
Conservatives wish for a secure, stable and orderly society.
A conservative society is:
- Local: it is a collection of localised communities (not atomistic individuals: although New Right thinkers such as Rand considerate to be this – see below). Burke described it as ‘little platoons’.
- Organic: society cannot be created by grand plans. Society emerges gradually, organically. Human life is too complex and has no capacity for reason, therefore planning a society is not possible. Society is more like an organic plant.
- Empirical: conservatives will deal with society using facts, in a practical fashion. Oakeshott: a society is one that merely attempts to ‘stay afloat’ in uncertain waters.
- Traditional: customs and habits give stability to a society. Change must be respectful of the past.
- Hierarchical: there is inequality in society due to people’s uneven talents. Burke desbribe the “wiser, stronger and more opulent” were more capable of leading society. This leads to the idea of paternalism or noblesse oblige, where the ruling classes look after those below.
- Judeo-Christian morality: there is a strong emphasis on the traditional institutions such as marriage; but Christian principles of compassion to bring society together.
- Property: a respect for property is the basis of society, supporting tradition. It is passed down from one generation to another. Burke: society is a “partnership between those who are living, those who are dead and those who are yet to be born”. New Right thinkers believe there should be a ‘property owing democracy”.
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Conservatism attitudes towards the economy
- Conservatives are in favour of a capitalist economic system. As conservatives believe that inequality and hierarchy exist in society, then the differences in wealth and income that is produced by capitalism is not a problem.
- Adam Smith’s ‘laissez-faire’ economic theories were followed by traditional conservatives.
- There is nuance in the views of conservatives towards the economy, and a contradiction for them. Traditional conservatives value order and stability, but capitalism can bring risk and fear to sceptical conservatives. Therefore traditional conservatives have been described as ‘capitalism’s reluctant supporters’. Capitalism also needs less government, which again contradicts the traditional view of the state.
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Conservatism differences about the economy
- Traditional:
Traditional conservatives are keen to support private property and private ownership, but are sceptical and fearful of free-market economics.
Hobbes:
An effective economy is only possible when a state guarantees law and order.
Burke:
Trade is important in a society, as is defending property that is passed on through generations.
Laissez-faire capitalism should be followed ( he was an ally of Adam Smith). SO there is a similarity with Nozick here.
- One Nation:
Traditional conservatives are keen to support private property and private ownership, but are sceptical and fearful of free-market economics. One nation conservatives believe free market economics widen inequality, therefore are happy to allow state intervention in the economy via Keynesian economic, higher taxation and high public spending on state welfare.
Oakeshott:
Believes that free market economies are unpredictable and therefore require the state to moderate its effects pragmatically.
- New Right
New Right thinkers believe in free-market economics and laissez-faire capitalism. They believe in low taxation, privatisation and deregulation. There should be little state intervention or state spending on welfare.
Nozick:
Nozick believes in a minarchist state. This should therefore not get involved in the running of the economy.
The individual should be left alone in the economic sphere to flourish.
Minarchist states outsource (privatise) public services to private c4ompanies.
Famous quote: “tax, for the most part is theft”.
Rand
Rand argues for objectivist individualism, therefore the state should not be involved in the running of the economy.
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Conservatism attitudes about the state
- Conservatives view the state as having a disciplinary function (which differs from liberalism and socialism).
- Its purpose is to provide order, security and stability.
- The state precedes (comes before) society. Without a state, there is no freedom. Rights are dependent on law and order, thus the existence of a state.
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Conservatism differences about the state
- Traditional:
Traditional conservatives believe that a state is necessary and should follow hereditary principles: there is a class that is ‘born to rule’.
Hobbes:
States arise as part of a ‘contract’ between individuals who seek security. This state (or Leviathan) must be strong, autocratic and awesome.
Burke:
The state arises organically, is aristocratic and run by an elite who rule in the benefits of all. This ruling class has an obligation to rule for all.
Change in the state should be organic.
- One Nation
One nation conservatives are happy to extend the role of the state in order to create social stability and provide welfare schemes as part of a Keynesian mixed economy state.
Oakeshott:
The state should be guided by tradition and pragmatism. The state exists to ‘prevent the bad rather than create the good’. The state’s job is to ‘keep the ship afloat at all costs”.
- New Right
New Right thinkers believe that the state should only exist for security and defence. In all other areas, the ‘frontiers of the state should be rolled back’. They are hostile to aristocratic rule and prefer meritocracy. Aristocratic societies are reluctant to bring about the changes necessary to create a neo-liberal economy/society.
Nozick:
Nozick believes in a minarchist state. It should outsource activities and resources to private companies. Public services should not be provided by the state.
Rand
The state should merely exist for law and order.
Any attempts to promote ‘positive liberty’ by the state should be resisted.
She believed that liberty was only possible when law and order as provided by a small state.
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Traditional Conservatism
- Earliest form of conservatism, Edmund Burke
- Burke is known as the ‘father of conservatism’. His book ‘Reflections on the Revolution in France’ summarises the traditional conservative approach.
- It defends the established order in society.
There is a commitment to organicism, paternalism and hieracrchy, and society is like a living organism. Radical changes are to be avoided, instead pragmatic decisions should be taken based on the wisdom of what has happened before. - Traditional institutions such as the church, the monarchy and the family form the basis of such a society.
- Any attempt to plan a society with an ideological blueprint, is doomed to failure. Human nature lacks the capacity and rationality to achieve such changes. Such revolutionary changes only lead to chaos and violence.
- Society is hierarchical with aristocracy leading it (due to their wisdom). There is a concept of noblesse oblige/paternalism.
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One Nation Conservatism
- As mentioned above, Benjamin Disraeli introduced a concept of social welfare and reform to conservatism. He was concerned by the threat of socialism and felt that governments should address the needs of the workers to promote social cohesion rather than violent revolution.
- Disreali argued that the different social classes were all members of the same ‘family’ – a nation and revolutionary socialist policies were a threat to the nation itself.
- After WWII, Conservative governments adopted Keynesian economic management of the economy by continuing with the nationalisation schemes adopted by the Labour 1945 governments. They embraced ‘big government’ with the welfare state and a mixed economy.
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New Right Conservatism
- New Right conservatism is a blend of two ideologies: neoliberalism and neoconservatism.
- Neo-liberalism - Ayn Rand and Robert Nozick
These ideas were originally developed by Friedrich von Hayek (The Road to Serfdom) and the Milton Friedman. Individual freedom is increased by ‘rolling back the frontiers of the state’, to create a free market economy. This would lead to economic growth and a vibrant prosperous society.
Taxes should be cut and government spending should be reduced. End the dependency culture of excessive welfare provision.
Deregulate and privatise services provided by the government - ‘neuter’ or weaken bodies such as trade unions that are wedded to the state.
- Neo-conservatism - Main concern is the restoration of authority and a Judeo-Christian morality
They call for:
Tough law and order policies
More robust national defence
Less tolerant approach to immigration
Anti-permissive social policies and the promotion of the ‘traditional’ family.
Therefore, they call for an increased role of the state (but this is financed by the wealth generated by the neo-liberal economic policies).
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To what extent are conservatives united in their view of society? - YES
- Conservatives view the need for society to provide frameworks for individuals (Hobbes).
Most conservatives see natural order, emerging in society (Burke) Therefore showing agreement between all Conservatives over society. - All conservatives see society as essential for human development (Burke). In their own ways, all conservatives recognise the importance of society where humans are able to flourish. Therefore, showing general agreement within Conservatism on the importance of society.
- All conservatives prefer a society where the state plays as small a role as necessary (Oakeshott) * Conservatives are distrustful of the state fearing it will impose restraints on society, therefore showing agreement between
Conservatives over the role of the state within society
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To what extent are conservatives united in their view of society? - NO
- Traditional and one nation conservatives disagree with the new right over society. Traditional/one nation conservatives have an organic view of society (Burke) whereas the new right feel society is composed of individuals who are free to develop as they
desire. (Nozick) This makes the position of
traditional/one nation conservatives at odds with the new right . - Traditional and one nation conservatives disagree with the new right over the importance of the past in society. Traditional/one nation conservatives believe society has emerged gradually and that traditions must be respected (Burke) whereas the New Right had a radical agenda seeking to make large changes to society and not bound by the past. Therefore Showing fundamental disagreement within Conservatism over the role of tradition and gradual change.
- Traditional and one nation conservatives disagree with the new right over whether hierarchy is natural (Hobbes). Traditional/one nation conservatives believe society that society will be based on some form of natural inequality with this serving to give a sense of duty to some (Oakeshott) whereas the New Right believe in a meritocracy. While both views accept an unequal society, one is based on a fixed hierarchy and the other based on the merits of the individual showing clear disagreement
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Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
- Order – an ordered society should balance the human need to lead a free life.
- Human nature – humans are needy, vulnerable and easily led astray in attempts to understand the world around them.
- Views social breakdown and civil war as the biggest danger to society; therefore prizes law and order (even by a tyrant) above all other principles.
- Thinks that humans are limited, vulnerable and easily led astray.
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Edmund Burke
(1729-1797)
- Change – political change should be undertaken with great caution and organically.
- Tradition and empiricism – practices passed down for generations should be respected.
- Feared change but came to accept ‘change in order to conserve’ society had to have some flexibility or it would not survive.
- Strong belief in organic society and the importance of customs and traditions to bind and create unity.
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Michael Oakeshott
(1901-1990)
- Human imperfection – suggestion that society is unpredictable and humans are imperfect.
- Pragmatism –belief that conservatism is about being pragmatic.
- Re-asserts the imperfect nature of humanity and the limits to their abilities.
- Sees life as a constant battle and struggle with no fixed destination.
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Ayn Rand (1905-1982)
- Objectivism –this advocates the virtues of rational self-interest.
- Freedom – this supports a pure, laissez-faire capitalist economy.
- Re-asserts support for limited government and reduction of the state in preference for individual reliance.
- Strong belief in individuals pursing self-interest in a rational and progressive manner
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Robert Nozick (1938-2002)
- Libertarianism – based on Kant’s idea that individuals in society cannot be treated as a thing, or used against their will as a resource.
- Self-ownership – individuals own their bodies, talents, abilities and labour.
- Expresses concern over the role of the state, he is particularly against any form of wealth distribution which he sees as flawed and counter-productive.
- Believes in giving as much autonomy as possible to the individual over economic and personal life.
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Origins of Socialism
- It grew out of the Enlightenment. Thinkers were concerned by the impact of private property on individuals, for example Jean Jacques Rousseau wrote about the “many horrors and misfortunes” that arose out of private property. Others called for its abolition.
- It was until the 19th century that ‘socialism’ was a term was coined. Charles Fourrier and Robert Owen (utopian socialists) created an alternative response to the horrors of the industrial revolution, advocating communal ownership and production of goods instead, with the equal distribution of resources. These independent communities would promote the values of tolerance and respect.
- As the 19th century progressed and the Industrial Revolution intensified, many looked to the ideas of these early socialists for a new approach to create an alternative vision of society.
Core ideas of socialism - Common humanity
Socialists believe that humans like to co-operate, rather than to compete with each other. Individuals are only understood when compared to the society that they have come from. Humans will work together for the common good. Competition is wasteful and harmful, it merely creates hostility towards others; capitalism pits one individual against another disregarding their common humanity.
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Core ideas of socialism -
Collectivism
- Humans can achieve their political, social and economic objectives more efficiently by collective action than by themselves. Collectivism means that society can be transformed by working together.
- It is preferred by socialists as group interests should take a priority over individual self- interest. Collectivism encourages social unity and social responsibility towards others. It also helps transform the economy if all work together. Therefore it is better to work as a collective than pursue individual self- interest.
- It is based on a positive view of human nature, where humans are social animals who prefer to live in a social group than alone. There is a bond of ‘fraternity’ between individuals.
- Socialists therefore call for state intervention/ state planning to achieve collectivist goals. Revolutionary socialists (Marxists) are strong believers in collectivism, with ideas of a strong state responsible for all aspects of the redistribution of wealth. Moderate socialists prefer a more limited form of collectivism, where much of the economy would be left in private hands, but the state would provide welfare and support for key industries.
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Core ideas of socialism - Equality
- Economic inequalities are created by capitalism, rather than the innate differences amongst individuals. Therefore they reject the liberal view of equality of opportunity as they believe that this will merely justify the inequality of individuals based on their abilities. Instead socialists believe that individuals can be equal if they are given the same starting place. Although, Third Way socialists take a more liberal view of equality of opportunity.
- They believe that equality of outcome helps collectivism as it promotes harmony, rather than resentment. They believe equality of outcome helps satisfy our basic human needs.
There is a difference in socialism as to the extent that equality of outcome should be ‘enforced’. - Revolutionary socialists (Marxists) want absolute equality of outcome for all, through the controlled distribution of goods and services, the abolition of private property and the common ownership of the means of production.
- Social democrats believe that there should be a more gradual approach: that society should be made more equal through the use of welfare schemes. They will reform capitalism rather than abolish it.
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Core ideas of socialism - Social class
- The existence of social class is the main reason for divides in society. Social class is the main agent of change throughout history: Marxists believe that there is a conflict between the ruling and revolutionary classes.
- Socialists differ over the importance of social class:
Revolutionary Socialists (Marxists): class has a fundamental role in politics. A person’s class is economically determined by their relationship to the means of production. Conflict is inevitable between the owners of the wealth and the labourers. The ruling bourgeoisie use the state as an instrument of class rule to maintain their dominance. Marx described stages of history where the ‘haves’ and the ‘have nots’ would revolt, leading to the proletarian revolution where capitalism would be overthrown. A dictatorship of the proletariat would be established, where class differences would be removed, leading to a classless society and the withering away of the state.
- Social democrats see social class in different terms. Income and status are considered too. State intervention can be used to narrow class differences. The state is not a form of oppressive class rule but provides the means for welfare and redistributive schemes. Social democrats call for class consensus rather than revolutionary action.
Core ideas of socialism - Workers control
This means the ownership of an enterprise (factory/business) by the workers, either in full or partly. It can also mean the workers control of the state. Workers should have full democratic control of how the business/enterprise is run and is an important step towards a socialist society.
