Unit 1 revision booklet II Flashcards
1
Q
Evaluate the extent to which the UK is a liberal democratic system
A
Introduction
- Liberal Democracy balances the principle of limited government against the idea of popular consent.
- Its ‘liberal’ features are reflected in a belief in limited government and in a network of internal and external checks upon government that are designed to guarantee liberty and afford citizens protection against the state.
- Its ‘democratic’ character is based on a system of regular and competitive elections, conducted on the basis of universal suffrage and political equality. True democracy is synonymous with political pluralism, a tolerance of many beliefs, rival movements and parties.
How is the UK system ‘liberal’?
The Labour government did a great deal to fragment and spread out power in this country.
- Devolution
- London Mayor & Assembly
- HRA came into effect in 2000 (a more proactive judiciary, with the support of the Act, is protecting peoples’ rights)
- Freedom of Information Act came into force in 2005
- The Judiciary has become more independent of the other branches of government with the introduction of a new Supreme Court in 2009.
2
Q
5
How could the current system be criticised as not conforming to liberal democratic ideals?
A
- Still no written constitution
- Recent parliamentary reform has, if anything, weakened liberal democracy rather than strengthened it. Reforms to the Commons under Labour were trifling and Lords reform has been slow materialising. Parliament as a whole remains weak and the executive is increasingly strong.
- Blair was almost presidential in his style. He placed little emphasis on cabinet meetings and much more on ‘tete a tetes’ in ‘Tony’s Den.’ He also relied on an array of ‘shadowy’ advisors (such as Alistair Campbell) rather than elected politicians. However, because of the nature of coalition, Cameron has had to listen more and become more consensual.
- FPTP remains distinctly unrepresentative of the true wishes of voters. Because of the Westminster system it could be argued that we do not have enough parties to truly represent the diverse views of the electorate.
- Are PGs listened to? Millions marched in the ‘Stop the War’ coalition but they were largely ignored. Are PGs the answer anyway? Often their success is dictated by the ‘sexiness’ of the issue (e.g. fashion models and anti-fur, Joanna Lumley and the Gurkhas), their celebrity support (e.g.Hugh Grant and ‘Hacked Off’), their resources and ‘insider’ status (e.g. CBI and not the ‘Occupy’ movement…).
2
Q
How is the UK system ‘democratic’?
A
- New electoral systems in Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland and London. These are fairer systems which produce a more proportional representation (i.e. fewer wasted votes and more representation for minority parties).
- Increasing use of referenda (e.g. for devolution and London Mayor) Introduction of City Mayors
- Increasing political pluralism (e.g. the huge increase in pressure group activity fuelled by the mass communications revolution).
- The Welsh Assembly is now the only democratically elected body in the world that has an equal representation of men and women.
- Blair appointed the first ever black cabinet minister (Paul Boateng, Chief Secretary to the Treasury), Cameron the first ever Muslim cabinet minister (Baroness Warsi). There are now a number of openly gay ministers.
- Minority parties now represented in Europe (UKIP, BNP, Greens) and one Green MP and one UKIP MP at Westminster.
- The Coalition has introduced fixed term parliaments (the next election will be May 2015)
3
Q
Evaluate the extent to which Pressure Group Power is increasing in the UK (30)
A
- Tuition fee protests (2010), fuel protests (in 2000), Countryside Alliance and Stop the War (in 2004), and Make Poverty History in 2005 have attracted huge numbers of supporters. The BBC estimated that 1 million people attended the Stop the War march against the Iraq War in February 2003.
- There has been a huge growth in the ‘politics of protest’ generally in recent years . Extinction Rebellion and Just Stop Oil have demonstrated this with their actions in recent years. These have also been fuelled by globalisation and the growth of the internet (‘cyberactivism’).
- Breakdown in community and the rise of ‘individualism’ has meant increasingly that people look for ‘tailor-made’ groups to represent their beliefs. PGs often fit the bill. They cater for a ‘pick and mix’ politics. For example sectional groups created for particular jobs or sections of society, i.e. NFU or BMA.
- Devolution has meant that there are now more layers of government to influence. There are more access points. Pressure group activity is now a, “multi-level, multi-arena game.” CBI has it’s own regional organisation (CBI Scotland) which aims to lobby the Scottish Parliament.
4
Q
3
Are PGs actually achieving results to match their increased levels of activity?
A
- The tuition fee protestors in 2010 did not succeed in making government change its policies. Neither did the Stop the War march in 2003 or the ‘Occupy the London Stock Exchange’ movement in 2011 actually change government policy towards the banking system. The Countryside Alliance also failed to end the ban on fox hunting. Fathers 4 Justice & ‘Plane Stupid’, while amusing the nation with their wacky stunts, have yet to change government policy. The recent naked protest in Parliament by outsider Pressure Group ‘Extinction Rebellion’ in April 2019 achieved no meaningful policy debate or change in government policy. The government have in fact taken steps to reduce the power of protest instead.
- Despite a previous decline in membership of political party membership which may have been caused by an era of consensus politics in 2010-2015, it is clear that politics from 2017 onwards is diverging away from pressure group activity and back into the traditional realm of party politics. Parties are making huge drives for new members, with Labour gaining 300,000 new members under Jeremy Corbyn since 2015 and both the Conservatives and Lib Dems spending hundreds of thousands on membership campaigns.
- Generally it can be argued that there has been a decline in meaningful participation in western democracies in the last 20 or 30 years. Although large numbers of people may, at different times, be attracted to marches and demonstrations, this seldom leads to longer-term political involvement or commitment. For some protest may have become a social event - it is a form of ‘lifestyle politics’ or ‘politics lite.’ Many large groups simply have ‘chequebook’ members. PGs require active members to be effective.
5
Q
Evaluate the view that Pressure groups play a vital role in strengthening democracy - YES
A
- PGs provide essential freedom for citizens to organise with likeminded people
- They help to disperse power and act as a supplement to electoral democracy
- They provide functional representation (e.g. Interest / Sectional Groups)
- They allow for continuity of representation (even between elections)
- They act as a ‘safety valve’ – an outlet for pent-up energies and help maintain the stability of society.
- They apply scrutiny to government activity (e.g. Stop the War)
6
Q
4
Evaluate the view that Pressure groups play a vital role in strengthening democracy - NO
A
- The freedom to organise and influence is exploited by the rich and powerful groups (e.g. Countryside Alliance or CBI). Do PGs empower the already powerful? Poorer groups in society (such as the poor, children, asylum-seekers) have to rely on less well financed organisations (e.g. Child Poverty Action Group)
- Powerful insider groups are favoured over outsider groups. This is not conducive to the idea of an open democracy. The most incisive pressure group activity takes place ‘behind closed doors’ where it is not subject to public scrutiny and public accountability. (CBI influence on Conservative party policy)
- Corporatism has emerged which reduces the impact of parliament
- PGs are often not representative of their members. PGs increasingly use celebrity support where they can. Is this fair & democratic? This is perhaps a form of ‘non-legitimate’ power. Unlike conventional politicians, PG leaders have not been elected.
PGs are essentially sectional and do not act for the interests of the country as a whole.
7
Q
4
Evaluate the view that the UK should introduce compulsory voting - YES
A
- If voters knew that they had to vote or face a fine, it may force them to educate themselves about politics in order to make an informed decision.
- By increasing turnout, it will give greater democratic legitimacy to parliament and the party that win the election and subsequently form the government. Turnout in Australian elections tend to be around 93%.
- By ensuring that all aspects of society are involved including minorities, politicians, parliament and government will have to make sure that their policies will address the concerns of everyone, not just those who vote in large numbers, improving representation and making them more accountable.
- It could be argued that voting is a civic duty, so citizens should be obliged to carry out that duty. Suffragettes fought and died for the right of women to vote, whilst before large scale suffrage was introduced through the reforms acts of 1867 & 1884, as well as the Representation of the People Acts in 1918, 1928 and 1948, Parliament and MPs were liable to be highly unaccountable and ‘rotten boroughs’ existed.
8
Q
4
Evaluate the view that the UK should introduce compulsory voting - NO
A
- It is a civil liberties violation. Many argue it is a basic right not take part in the electoral process. In many cases not voting is a conscious choice, not made out of apathy, but as a method to signal disillusionment with the political system.
- Ill-informed voting does not increase legitimacy, it may actually decrease it, as it is harder to tell which votes are meaningful and informed ones. It may also lead to ‘donkey voting’, voting for whoever is at the top of the list of candidates.
- To enforce it and make sure everybody does vote will lead to large scale expenditure on enforcement. Although the government would make money from fining those who don’t vote, the administrative costs of chasing people would be significant. Liechtenstein is an example of a country where penalty fines were enforced during the 20th century but the cost of enforcement exceeded total receipts from the fines.
- The system will just reinforce the two-party system operating in the UK, as less informed voters are more likely to vote for the two parties they are more likely to have heard of, the Conservatives and Labour, who have more money to spend on campaigning and advertising and tend to get more press coverage.
9
Q
3
Evaluate the view that Government support is the most important factor influencing the success of a pressure groups
A
- Government support and Insider Status is the first factor which needs to be assessed. Both promotional and sectional groups are bound to be far more successful if they are bound to a sympathetic government. (League Against Cruel Sports or Child Poverty Action Group under Labour Party, CBI under Conservatives). Trade Unions will have less influence under Conservative governments for example, compared with the CBI, a wealthy group which had Insider status with the Conservative party (but the group has recently faced turbulent times).
- Size - The more supporters a group has, the more pressure it can place on decision-makers. Politicians do not like to fly in the face of public opinion because they will regularly dace the need for re-election. Age UK (a group campaigning for the rights and needs of elderly people) has had significant success, not least because it represents such as significant proportion of the population. Similarly, if a group is too small it will struggle to be heard in the wake of larger more powerful groups. However, size is no guarantee of success, as the Stop the War campaign in 2003 managed to rally 1 million people to protest against the Iraq War, with no success, as they didn’t possess the support of Blair’s government.
- Financial resources (WWF, Amnesty Greenpeace) – Wealthy groups can afford ecpensice campaigns, employ lobbying firms to influence ministers and MPs on the government benches, sponsor political parties and purchase advertising space on the still largely unregulated internet. The Institute of Directors has considerable financial wealth and has in recent years enjoyed good favour with the Conservative government. However, finance on its own is not enough, as if you do not have public opinion on your side, or your group is not in favour with the party of government, you will not see returns on your investments. A major example of this is hugely wealthy Trade Unions not making substantial legislative gains under a Conservative government.
9
Q
3
Evaluate the view that citizens can no longer feel confident that their rights in the
UK are secure and established. - Rights are secure and established
A
- An Independent judiciary upholds Human Rights against overly powerful governments in the UK. The judiciary has been empowered and alongside the Constitutional Reform Act of 2005. This is a fundamental part of living in a democracy – separation of powers is key to controlling government.
- If there are more cases and disputes in the news concerning Rights it is not indicative of increased problems but rather shows increased transparency and the evidence of ‘Rights in action.’ When this is backed up by the growth of social media, it enables the electorate/public to become better educated about their rights.
- In recent years the passage of more detailed legislation means that Rights are set out clearly and in detail. These include the Human Rights Act 1998 and the Equality Act 2010. All of the above has established a clear Rights based culture
10
Q
3
Evaluate the view that citizens can no longer feel confident that their rights in the
UK are secure and established. - Rights are not secure and established
A
- In recent years citizens have experienced a loss of Rights curtailed by increasingly governments. This process has been undertaken as governments have sought to protect citizens from acts of terrorists – Blair’s Terrorism Act 2006 lengthened the amount of time a terrorist suspect could be detained without trial to 28 days (having asked for 90).
- Pressure group evidence continually shows proof of governments undermining Rights in the UK – as seen in the work of Liberty and Stonewall. After the rushed introduction of the Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act (DRIPA) in 2014, Liberty aided Tom Watson MP and David Davis MP to launch a legal challenge arguing that DRIPA is incompatible with the Human Rights Act and EU Charter of Fundamental Rights.
- Parliamentary sovereignty and the uncodified UK constitution means even the Human Rights Act 1998 is insecure and Conservatives want to repeal it and replace with a British Bill of Rights. This was evident in their manifesto in 2015.
11
Q
3
Evaluate the view that the voting age should be lowered to 16 - Yes it should be lowered
A
- With the spread of citizenship education and widespread access to news sources on the internet, young people are now better informed than ever. Parties have embraced social media to attract support from the young, with the Conservative spending £100 million pounds on online advertising in 2015, and Jeremy Corbyn having 1.8 million followers on twitter.
- At 16 years of age you are able to marry, pay taxes, and leave home. You can legally have sex, which implies it is the age at which the Government deems you old enough to become a parent. If you are deemed old enough to become a parent, get married and contribute to the treasury, then you should be deemed old enough to decide who makes the policies that so greatly affect your life
- Turnout amongst the 18-24 age group is very low. If the voting age is lowered, people will become engaged in politics from an earlier age and may be more likely to vote, as they will be more invested n what is going on politically. It isn’t just about short-term issues such as tax, but long term constitutional issues will affect young people for the rest of their lives, e.g. Brexit, which they couldn’t vote on in the Referendum.
11
Q
3
Evaluate the view that the voting age should be lowered to 16 - No it should’nt be lowered
A
- There is no obligation other than limited citizenship education at secondary schools for young people to learn about politics, and 16 and 17-year olds may just be too young to make rational judgements without an education in politics.
- Most 16-17 year olds will still live with their parents, most of them will not drive until they are at least 17, and will still be in some form of education until 18. This exempts them from a lot of taxes that voters in the 18+ bracket would have to pay such as council tax, income tax and road tax. This arguably gives them less of a stake in society.
- The issues at stake are often too complex for a 16 or 17 year old to understand. For example, the Brexit referendum was an incredibly complex issue requiring a strong understanding of UK politics and the workings of the EU. This is too much to ask of someone still at school or college. Young people could become too easily influenced by social media trends such as #cleggmania, #millifandom or Corbyn’s social media following.
12
Q
Political Party
A
- Group of like-minded people who attempt to win political power through elections. Disraeli said, “Party is organised opinion”.
- Will generally have a broad ideological identity – its members will share basic values and goals. At elections they will produce a policy programme known as a manifesto.
- It will also have a broad policy focus (catch – all), since (if it is a major party) it must convince the electorate that it can take on the task of government. Smaller parties may be more programmatic in nature – i.e. Much more fixed opinions (ideological) focussing on particular issues.
13
Q
Party Government
A
The belief that only by placing the power in the hands of a single party can a country be effectively governed. Politicians can then be strong enough to take unpopular but necessary decisions. Politicians are held accountable by offering the electorate a choice between the record of the party in office and the criticism of the opposition. This is done through the publication of manifestos.
14
Q
Manifesto and Mandate
A
Manifesto is a list of policies that a political party promises to carry out if it wins the election, such as cutting taxation. All major parties publish a manifesto during an election campaign. A mandate (simply ‘permission’) is what a party has when it wins an election and forms a government. It then feels that it has been given permission by the electorate to carry out the policies in the manifesto.
15
Q
The core Functions of political parties (Think ‘PROPER’!)
A
- Policy function: Parties contribute to formation of government policy through party conferences and meetings.
- Representative function: In the past, parties have represented different sections or classes of society, for example Labour were traditionally the party of the working class whilst the Conservatives were more the party of the Middle and Upper Classes. However, increasing ‘party de-alignment’ has partially eradicated this distinction; due to the FPTP system parties must now have a wide base of support in order to win elections.
- Organisation of Government: Under our political system and electoral system FPTP, it is usual for one party to secure an overall majority in the House of Commons. That party is referred to as ‘the party of government’, and government ministers are drawn from that party. It is rare in this country for a coalition of parties to be in power, although this did happen in 2010 with the Conservative-Lib Dem coalition. We also had from 2017-2019 a ‘confidence and supply ’ deal between the Conservatives and the DUP. Note that this was not quite a formal coalition, but an informal deal to support the government in key votes (but not May’s deal).
- Participatory function. Parties recruit members some of whom will become party activists – thereby encouraging political participation. As of December 2017 (last official figures released), Labour had 564,000 members and the Liberal Democrats had 102,000 members as of May 2017. As of August 2017, the SNP had 118,000 members. As of December 2016, the Green Party (England and Wales) had 46,000 and UKIP 34,000. As of December 2013 (latest published figure) the Conservative Party had 149,800 members. Party membership has risen notably since 2013, both in total and as a percentage of the electorate.
- Elections: Parties play a crucial role in educating the public about the election issues and ‘getting out the vote’. E.g Momentum and the organisation of Labour party volunteers during the 2019 general election.
- Recruitment of leaders: Parties help to ‘talent spot’ future leaders and provide opportunities for them to develop their political expertise. All party leaders have to start as MPs elected as candidates from that particular party.
16
Q
Consensus politics
A
- One meaning is that the main political parties adopt policies which are similar and overlap a great deal. That is, there is a broad consensus over most key political issues. This is likely to reflect broader opinion among the electorate. With consensus politics, political conflict tends to concern such issues as policy detail, how to deliver policies and the competence or otherwise of the government and opposition, but not over the main issues.
- It is generally agreed that the ‘50s and ‘60s (‘Butskellism’) and the period between 2005-2015 = consensus politics.
- Another meaning is that parties agree to suspend political conflict over certain issues and to adopt consensus politics. This has occurred in recent times over issues such as the Northern Ireland troubles from 1968-2007 and the Iraq war and postwar involvement since 2003. There is also an informal consensus over the so-called ‘war on terror’ and, more recently, with the financial crisis e.g the extraordinary measures taken by government to restore the banking system were not challenged by either of the other two main parties on the grounds that disunity would be damaging at a time of national and international crisis.
- A formal version of consensus politics occurs when there is a coalition government and two or more parties develop an agreed set of policies based on consensus views, as happened with the Conservative-Lib Dem coalition of 2010-2015. It has also been a feature of politics in Wales & Scotland since devolution.
17
Q
Adversary Politics
A
- This is typically the opposite of consensus politics
- When there is a wide and clear gulf between the policies of main parties e.g. the 1980s was a great period of adversary politics in Britain, when Thatcherism was confronted by a very left-wing Labour Party under Michael Foot. Political conflict became deep and intense.
- During this period, Margaret Thatcher was privatising key state run industries in line with her ‘New Right’ neo-liberal economic ideas, whilst Michael Foot wrote the ‘Longest Suicide note in history’ (The 1983 Labour party manifesto which advocated renationalisation and increased state control).
- Potentially the advent of Corbyn as leader of the Labour party in 2015 and Prime Minister Theresa May’s pursuit of a Hard Brexit since 2016 as opposed to Corbyn soft Brexit may indicate a return to adversarial politics.
18
Q
4
Factors that may influence party success - Leadership
A
- Experience in Government – May vs. Corbyn in 2017. Could be seen as an advantage or disadvantage.
- Media Image – How a leader is treated by the media may influence what the public and their party think of them. Corbyn pre-election, May post-election.
- Decisiveness – Theresa May’s U-turn on social care in the run up to GE2017 made her seem indecisive. Compare to the clarity of ‘Get Brexit Done’
- Ability to Lead – Corbyn faced of Vote of No Confidence in July 2016 which triggered a leadership election. May faced a Conservative party Vote of No Confidence in December 2018.
19
Q
2
Factors that may influence party success - Unity
A
- Labour split in 1981 with ‘gang of four’ forming the SDP, Conservatives united behind Thatcher
1997 – Blair had virtually completely united the party
2017 – Corbyn united Labour with an unexpectedly good election result
Since 2016 – Tories mildly split on Europe – rebellion in December 2017
- 9 Labour MPs quit the Labour party in February of 2019 over Corbyn’s leadership and failure to deal with anti-semitism within the party. 8 of them, including Chuka Umunna and Luciana Berger, went on to form The Independent Group – Change UK with three ex-Conservatives, Sarah Wollaston, Anna Soubry, and Heidi Allen.
Johnson removed the whip from a range of Conservative centrist MPs.
19
Q
2
Factors that may influence party success - Media
A
- Does the party dominate on social media? Conservatives spent 1m on Facebook alone during GE2015, whilst Labour (Momentum especially) reached millions with its viral videos during GE2017
- Traditional Media – the party political leanings of the major newspapers mean they can significantly influence the public’s views of a party. In 2017 the Daily Mail had a circulation of 1,514,000 and 74% of it’s readers voted for the Conservatives, the Mail’s desired party of government.
20
Q
4
Main areas of consensus (similarities) between the three main parties
A
- Health/NHS. All main parties agree that the NHS is an institution that needs funding and supporting. Whilst they disagree on the inner workings of it, they do both want to keep it broadly free at the point of access.
- Social Policy. General consensus between the three main parties that there is a need for policies to combat family breakdown, deprivation in poorer areas and lack of opportunity for the young. There is also a general sense that general inequality and lack of social justice need to be addressed. Disagreement is confined to methods rather than priorities.
- Environment. All three parties agree that environmental protection is a priority, especially climate change and the need for renewable energy production. Conflict is confined to details of policy and which renewables are most appropriate, with some disagreement over nuclear energy.
- Stability in the economy The cost of living crisis, the fallout from Covid and the Ukrainian war means that family budgets are tight. All parties are aware of need to keep spending low/balance books.
21
# 6
Old Labour Values
- Equality – redistribution of income to reduce the worst inequalities, Labour has also been associated with ‘social justice’ and formal equality under the law.
- Equality of opportunity – Realising that total inequality was unfeasible, Labour opted for the idea that everyone should have the same opportunities to achieve in life, no matter what their family background is.
- Collectivism and common ownership – The idea that many of our goals are achieved collectively rather than individually. The welfare state, Trade Unionism and the cooperative movement. Public ownership of major industries, run by the state on behalf of the people, Steel etc., continued under successive Labour government until Thatcher’s privatisations in the 1980s.
- Trade Unions- Workers were weak compared to employers. Support for TUs was therefore vital in redressing the balance between them. This was a key value of Old Labour.
- Statism and welfare system – Centralised state can and should play a key role in controlling economic activity and in securing social goals – this is statism. It in theory ensures equality of treatment. The National Health Service (NHS) was established in 1948 - it provided free access to doctors, dentists, opticians and hospitals
- Class conflict – The belief that the interests of the two great classes, the working class and the middle class cannot be reconciled, and government therefore must support the interests of the disadvantaged working classes
21
# 5
Main areas of difference between the parties
- Crime. Conservatives see personal responsibility rather than social causes as the basis of crime and their response to the Summer 2011 riots was one emphasising the role of punishment. Corbyn has heavily criticised cuts to police funding in the wake of increased violent crime and terror attacks in London (2017). Starmer has continued this criticism.
- Education. Over Free Schools, grammar schools, tuition fees, Academies, there is now considerable difference in policy across the parties. Starmer, although saying he is comfortable with private schools, has a plan to impose VAT on them if elected.
- Tax. There was a clear divide in policy when Truss was PM, with a signficant tax cut announced in 2022 reducing the higher rate of taxation by 5%. But this has been reversed since. Conservatives wish to cut taxes, but have been hampered by circumstances post Covid. In 2023, they cut National Insurance by 2% - but still have the highest proportion of taxation. Labour are ‘reluctant’ to raise taxes for ‘working people’, instead focusing on raising taxes for higher earners and cosing tax loop holes.
- Welfare State. There are some disagreements over the detailed operation of welfare services. Iain Duncan-Smith has introduced significant changes to the welfare system (including capping housing benefit, capping the amount of benefits any family can receive and reducing the rise in other benefits to below inflation levels).
- Role of the State. Labour favours an interventionist or ‘Enabling’ State. The Labour conference in 2023 voted for renationalisation of energy firms, but commitments from the party leadership to this are not clear. There was a 2017 policy for a ‘Great British Energy’company - it is not clear if this will survive to the next manifesto. The Conservatives have criticised this heavily calling it a ‘nanny state’. They favour a minimal state which empowers local communities (including voluntary groups and businesses etc) to take local action themselves. Although Johnson was more keen on intervention with ‘levelling up’, Sunak is not following these policies.
22
# 6
New Labour Values
- Rejection of class conflict - New Labour had a belief in the middle class and aspiration, i.e. the concept of social mobility. All members of society have an equal right to be supported by the state.
- Role of capitalism – Acceptance that capitalism is a good way of running society. Third Way – profits from capitalism to invest socially. Happy for tax to be low, it wasn’t link the Old Labour belief in redistribution of wealth through high taxes, instead using public borrowing.
- An ‘enabling’ state – state provides services but allow for tendering through the private sector
- Acceptance of individualism and communitarianism over collectivism. Blair favoured the idea of community over the whole state – individuals are prominent but have responsibilities towards communities. Blair spoke famously of rights (freedoms) and responsibilities (duties people had to the state).
- Equality of opportunity - Same as Old Labour - Realising that total inequality was unfeasible, Labour opted for the idea that everyone should have the same opportunities to achieve in life, no matter what their family background is.
- Political and constitutional reform - New Labour realized that the UK was deeply undemocratic – You know about this from Unit 2. Devolution in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Judicial reform as well as attempted House of Lords reform.
23
# 6
Main Beliefs and Policies of the Labour Party
- Historically based on socialist principles: equality, collectivism, redistributive taxation and the welfare state. Under Jeremy Corbyn, the Labour party saw a move back to Old Labour principles. Under Keir Starmer, the direction of travel seems more ‘New Labour’ (especially as Corbyn has had the party whip removed and now is an Independent MP).
- Labour now accepts that economic activity should be based largely on free markets. The role of the state is now more flexible – an ‘Enabling State’ focusing on delivering Equality of Opportunity. Combating inflation is a key priority, as is the promotion of en enterprise culture. Although Corbyn pledged limited renationalisation of the water industry at a cost of more than £60bn and moves to take the National Grid and Royal Mail back into public ownership in the 2017 manifesto. It is not clear if this will survive into the next manifesto – the leadership do not seem keen.
- They believe that the best response to poverty is not to redistribute income from rich to poor, but to offer tax credits to the ‘deserving poor’ – those on low pay, seeking work, poor pensioners, or families with children. Welfare benefits should be an incentive to work not a disincentive (e.g. ‘Welfare to Work’ schemes) Jeremy Corbyn said at the 2017 manifesto launch that Labour will end the freeze on welfare benefits. The current benefit cap means an extra £12bn is taken from low-income families a year.
- Education at all levels – nursery, primary, secondary and higher – is a priority and is seen as the best way to spread opportunity more evenly and to create a more effective, wealth creating workforce. It is also seen as a weapon against youth crime. Labour opposes the rise in tuition fees to £9,000. Corbyn even pledged to abolish tuiton fees during the 2017 general election, but this pledge is set to be ditched by Starmer. Instead, fairer fees will be provided. Also, private schools will face a VAT bill.
- Health provision– free to all, equal and comprehensive, funded largely out of taxation. Although New Labour believed thatt he private sector should be involved when this creates better value for money or effective, faster treatment, Corbyn was particularly against the use of Private Finance Initiatives (PFIs), which he said were partially privatising the NHS. Starmer has placed the NHS as his ‘third priority’ and has referred to tackling health inequalities and prevention of serious illness, plus using technology to help in health care.
- The reduction of poverty, especially among children and pensioners, is a key priority, with ambitious targets for poverty reduction being adopted. The oppose the two child cap for benefits. Corbyn in February 2018 proposed a 50% rate of tax for income over £123,000 and 45% for earnings above £80,000 to help fund this. However, current tax plans consist of ending tax loopholes, ending non- dom status and getting tech giants to pay fair share in taxation. ‘Working people’ would not face tax rises and there would not be a wealth tax.
24
Nature of One Nation Conservatism (or traditional conservatism)
- One Nation Conservatives believe that government has a responsibility to maintain the welfare of all the people and should interfere to achieve that. They see society not as a collection of individuals but rather as an ‘organic whole’ (the ‘organic society’), where everyone’s interests are interrelated.
- This has led to a belief in ‘paternalism’. Benjamin Disraeli adopted one-nation conservatism for both ethical and electoral reasons. Before he became leader of the Conservative Party, Disraeli had announced that, as a result of the Reform Act 1867 which had enfranchised the male working-class, the party needed to pursue social reforms if it were to have electoral success. Theresa May said upon assuming office as PM in 2016 ‘David Cameron has led a one-nation government, and it is in that spirit that I also plan to lead.
25
# 2
Nature of ‘Thatcherism’
- Thatcherism is typified by the belief in the strong individual and a strong economy. This equates to ‘neoconservatism’ and ‘neoliberalism’. Neo conservatism is the belief in robust moral values and an authoritarian state. Neoliberalism is the term used to describe ‘laissez-faire’ or free market economic ideas.
- The period most obviously representing a Thatcherite Conservative government is that of Margaret Thatcher herself from 1979-1990, which saw large scale privatisation of state owned industry as well as neoconservative policies such as the Falklands War in 1982 and the inclusion of Section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988 1988, and stated that authorities including schools “shall not intentionally promote homosexuality or publish material with the intention of promoting homosexuality."
26
# 4
Main Beliefs and Policies of the Conservative Party
- Conservatives believe that society is basically over-governed and so have a long term objective to reduce taxation and to reduce regulations upon personal and business activity. They tend to emphasise the authoritarian elements of law and order policy, arguing that prison is a good deterrent against crime.
- Recently Conservatives have come to accept that there is too much inequality and poverty. This is what Cameron means by Britain’s ‘broken society.’ May built on this even more, as she has talked about those ‘left behind’ by globalisation, ‘just about managing families’ and spoke of the excesses of the ‘privileged few’ in her speech in the steps of Downing Street in 2017.
Johnson also seems to be keen to develop this as a theme of his brand of conservatism – Levelling Up.
- Though Conservatives have an increasing concern for the environment, mainly climate change and carbon emissions, they do not believe that environmental policies should present too many restrictions on industrial and commercial activity. May abolished the Department for Energy and Climate Change, moving the responsibility for climate change to a new Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy. Sunak has recently opened up more contracts for oil in the North Sea.
- The party shares the other parties’ support for the principles of the welfare state, though they are more enthusiastic than the others about the involvement of the private sector. Especially true in pensions and health provision. In education they share Labour’s policies on choice, but have been more relentless in pursuing the policy of Free Schools and pushing to place more power in the hands of Headteachers (e.g. over performance related pay).
27
# 4
Conservative policy
- The Economy - Following a turbulent few years - post COVID, the Ukrainian war, a cost of living crisis and then the Truss budget of 2022 (where the highest rate of taxation was abolished 2019, causing the economic markets to fall) inflation and taxes have remained high. Sunak reversed the Truss budget. Sunak has pledged to halve inflation by the end of 2023 and also to grow the economy. National Insurance has been cut by 2% (in order to lower taxes) but tax levels remain the highest ever.
Sunak has introduced free ports (free trade zones) and brought in new international trade deals.
- Education - In 2019, the Conservatives promised to increase spending on schools across the board, as well as increasing teachers starting salaries to £30,000. Following strike action by unions they have granted small pay rises (below inflation).
Sunak plans to reform A Levels and get all students up to 18 studying Maths, bringing in a ‘British Baccalaureate’.
On university fees they promised to keep tuition fees frozen at £9,250 – but not to reduce them at all; Sunak wants to curb ‘low value’ degrees that do not offer chances of employment.
- Europe - ‘I voted for Brexit, I believe in Brexit’ – Sunak is a true Brexiter and does not want to see any alignment with EU rules in any future relationship with the bloc.
He achieved a new agreement, the Windsor Framework, in Northern Ireland with the EU, whereby NI remains inside the single market but there is a open land border.
- Health - In 2019, Johnson continued recent Conservative policy of planning more spending on the NHS. He promised £33.9 billion more for the NHS, including the building of 40 new hospitals and upgrading 20 existing ones (though these figures were questioned). There was also the promise of more staff, too.
Sunak has pledged to lower NHS waiting lists.
28
# 3
Evaluate the view that the current ideological position of the Labour and Conservative parties have considerable overlap. - They do
- Both parties are similar in terms of their economic policy, emphasising the need to stimulate economic growth, lower the tax burden and control inflation. Sunak’s pledges for 2023 including halving inflation and achieving economic growth.
Hunt’s autumn statement introduced a 2% cut in National Insurance payments from January.
Rachel Reeves has said that Labour will not introduce a wealth tax, will not raise the 45p rate of tax on higher earners, and wants to ‘grow the economy’
- Both parties claim to support the NHS & want to increase investment in the NHS. Both parties claim to support the NHS & want to increase investment in the NHS.
Conservative manifesto 2019 stated a pledge to increase the number of nurses by 50,000 and £20.5bn additional funding
Sunak made cutting NHS waiting lists one of his priorities for 2023.
Starmer wants to ‘build an NHS fit for the future’ including prioritising mental health care and improving GP access
- Both parties have spoken of ‘climate justice’ and green policies. In the 2019 manifesto the Conservative party pledged to achieve net zero carbon emissions by 2050 by investing in clean energy solutions and green infrastructure to reduce pollution and carbon emissions.
Labour’s current policy is to make Britain a ‘clean energy superpower’, cut household energy bills by £1400 a year by insulating 19 million homes
28
# 4
Labour policy
- The Economy - A focus on economic growth – one of Starmer’s promises was to ‘secure the highest growth in the G7’. Shadow chancellor Reeves has said there will be no wealth tax & will not raise top rate of income tax – ‘I want to grow the economy’.
Distancing himself further from the era of Jeremy Corbyn, Starmer has stressed the need that “fiscal (taxation) rules are sound and followed rigorously”.
Starmer has moved away from Corbyn’s tax policies (to increase income tax for top 5% of earners). Instead he wants to ‘lower taxes’ and focus on growth in the economy. He is not stating levels of tax yet – he says he is ‘no longer looking at the levers of taxation’ to change the economy. Plans still remain to clamp down on tax avoidance, particularly of large corporations.
- Education - One of Starmer’s 5 promises is to ‘Break down the barriers to opportunity at every stage’, aiming to raise standards to prepare young people for their futures; an expansion of free childcare. He also promised more money for education, in particular early years education. Also wants to levy VAT on private school fees. He is no longer committed to Corbyn’s pledge to scrap university tuition fees, instead focusing on reducing spiralling student debt. Develop Technical Excellence Colleges.
- Health - Increase spending on the NHS – ‘to build an NHS fit for the future’. Also promised to end NHS privatisation – although recently has stated that he may have to continue with some ‘out-sourcing’ of provision for a while. They would invest £1.1bn into NHS to deliver 2m more operations in first year in order to reduce waiting lists.
- Environment - One of the promises is to make Britain a ‘Green Energy superpower’. They will ramp up spending in Green industries to £28bn over 2 terms (this is a delay from initial plans due to current economic state). Plans for zero carbon electricity by 2030. Greater power to Ofwat to prevent bonus payments to water company bosses if they pump raw sewage into waterways.
29
# 3
Evaluate the view that the current ideological position of the Labour and Conservative parties have considerable overlap. - They don't
- Labour’s policy of creating a publicly-owned energy company, ‘Great British Energy’, suggests a greater willingness to consider state ownership of key industries, whereas Conservatives are committed to privatisation.
- They have different education policies.
Sunak wants to reform A-levels, creating a ‘British Baccalaureate’ and making all students study English and Maths beyond GCSE.
Labour are more strongly focused on equality of opportunity in their education policy, wanting to ‘smash the class ceiling’, improve early years education and childcare, and end VAT exemptions on private school fees.
- There seems to be a growing divide over green/environmental policies.
Sunak has rolled back on a lot of green policies, warning about the cost of achieving net zero. The phase-out of fossil fuel cars has been pushed back, as has the phasing out of gas boilers. HS2 has also been scrapped and the government has opposed Labour mayor Sadiq Khan’s extended ULEZ policy in London.
30
# 4
Evaluate the view that small parties are having an increasingly important impact on UK politics. - YES
- In a situation in which neither major party secures an overall majority in the House of Commons, a small party may become the king maker in forming a government, as happened with the Conservative-Lib Dem coalition in 2010, when the Conservatives only won 306 seats, needing the Lib Dems 57 to form a government.
DUP were in a ‘confidence and supply agreement’ with May’s Conservative govt. after she failed to win a majority in the 2017 GE.
- Small parties can claim to represent a large number of voters in the UK. UKIP received 3.8 million votes in 2015, whilst the Lib Dems and the SNP got 2.4 million and 1.5 milion votes respectively.
- Mainstream parties must respond to views & modify their policies – The rise of the Green party has forced the major parties to adopt greener policies. David Cameron’s support for green energy in 2010 has been attributed to this.
The electoral success of UKIP in the 2015 GE also influenced Cameron in his decision to call the 2016 Referendum on Britain’s membership of the European Union.
The rise of the SNP in Scotland forced David Cameron to hold a Scottish Independence Referendum in 2014 which was only narrowly won by the No side – 55% to 45%.
- Devolved government – The rise of the SNP has forced all other major parties to support further devolution in Scotland. This was partly a response to the close result of the Scottish Independence referendum in 2014, but also the major parties shock at losing almost all of their Scottish Westminster seats to the SNP in 2015. Lab, Cons and Lib Dems only won one seat each in Scotland! In 2019, the SNP won 48 of the 59.
31
# 4
Evaluate the view that small parties are having an increasingly important impact on UK politics. - NO
- The coalition 2010-2015 represents a brief blip in the long history of single party government in the UK, and we have potentially seen the end of Partisan dealignment in the UK – with 82% of voters voting for the two major parties.
- Due to the FPTP electoral system, the electoral success of the smaller parties in terms of vote share did not translate into seat share. With UKIP only winning one seat in 2015 and none in 2017, which saw their vote fall to just above 500,000. This was seen again in 2019, where FPTP helped Johnson’s Conservatives get a strong majority.
- Arguably Cameron called the Brexit referendum as much to quell dissent amongst his own party as to stave off the rise of UKIP, ever more powerful Conservative backbench MPs and government ministers had been lobbying him for a referendum for years.
- Although devolution represents a significant democratic step for the UK, the regional devolved governments have very little impact on UK politics as a whole. The NI Assembly is also primarily a representative body rather than a legislative body.
32
# 4
Evaluate the view that UK Political Parties should be funded by the state - YES
- It will end the opportunities for corrupt donations. The Electoral Commission is investigating donations to UKIP and the Leave campaign worth £2.3m, assessing whether Arron Banks was the “true source” of loans made in his name.
- It will end the possibilities of ‘hidden’ forms of influence through funding. For example, the ‘Black & White Ball’ a 2016 fundraiser held by the Conservatives which cost £15,000 pounds a table, and saw (then) PM David Cameron sat next to Howard Shore, a millionaire & outspoken critic of the EU who paid over £1000 pounds to be there.
- State funding would reduce the huge financial advantage that the large parties hold over the smaller parties and allow them to make electoral progress. For example, the Conservative party raised almost £25m between April and June 2017 compared with £9.5m for Labour and only 4.4m for the Lib Dems in the same period.
- It will improve democracy by ensuring participation from groups who do not have a ready and available source of funds at election time. Often small parties have to take out loans which leave them in severe debt. UKIP was £380,630 in debt before the 2017 election.
33
Evaluate the view that UK Political Parties should be funded by the state - NO
- Taxpayers may object to funding what can be considered ‘private’ organisations, especially those they personally disagree with. Why should passionate Labour supporters have to fund the Tories?
- It will be difficult to work out how to fairly allocate funding. If it is awarded on the basis of past electoral success then it will have a snowball effect and large parties will retain their advantage. Short Money allocated to opposition parties in parliament is allocated this way and has been criticised for it. The alternative of basing it on future aspirations is vague and subjective.
- With all the information that is freely available on the internet about policies and issues and the various political blogs and commentators, the role of parties in informing voters is less necessary than it was. The rise of social media as a forum for low budget mass media messaging also undermines the need for party funding. Momentum had low budget videos reaching 8 million people on Facebook during the 2017 general election.
