FEMINISM Flashcards
(35 cards)
3
Origins of Feminism
- Feminism is one of the most successful ideologies in the world. Many goals have been achieved, but as seen with the recent #MeToo movement, there are still plenty of challenges still to address. It aspires to attain equality in all spheres for women across the globe.
- Feminists have been around for centuries, but it was only with Mary Wollstonecraft and her book ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Women’ (1792) that we see a coherent case for female rights.
- There have been four ‘waves’ of feminism each addressing different themes:
First wave (1850s-1940s): focused on legal and political rights, most famously through the suffrage movement.
Second wave (1960s-1980s): this focused on the different roles that society expected of women than men. Sex/gender, patriarchy and ‘the personal is political’ became part of the debate. Betty Friedan’s ‘The Feminine Mystique’ (1963), Kate Millett’s ‘Sexual Politics’ (1970) and Simone de Beauvoir’s ‘The Second Sex’ (1949) were important books of this re-energised movement.
Third Wave (1990s) – feminist thinker bell hooks in ‘Ain’t I a woman’ (1981) highlighted how women of different cultures and classes had been left out of the movement so far, as it merely addressed the concerns of the white, middle class woman. Intersectionality was the watchword for this wave.
Fourth Wave (2000s) – this is the most recent form of feminism, whereby different forms of inequality are being highlighted. Misogyny in its different forms are being challenged: through sexual harassment cases, online abuse, bank notes and calling out everyday sexism via the #Everyday Sexism Project.
Core ideas of Feminism - Sex & Gender
Sex refers to the biological differences between men and women. Gender is the ‘innate characteristics’ of men and women; these are constructed by society. Feminists argue that there is no reason why some characteristics are assigned to women/men. Biological differences do not change, yet across cultures there are different expectations placed on men and women based on notions of gender. Gender therefore is a learned behaviour imposed by society.
3
Core ideas of Feminism - The personal is political
- A slogan devised by the second-wave of feminism, by Carol Hanisch.
- Feminists distinguish between the ‘private’ and ‘public’ sphere. Traditionally what happened in the ‘private sphere’ (the home) was not a concern of feminists, who fought for equal rights in the ‘public’ sphere (society). Second wave feminists highlighted that what was happening in the home needed to be addressed too.
- Kate Millett (radical feminist) identified the family as a key area of female oppression. The family was where women were ‘kept in their place’ by socialising them into domestic roles, women carrying out free domestic work even when doing paid work, women sacrificing their careers when they raise children, and once they return they find their promotion prospects are blocked.
3
Core ideas of Feminism - Patriarchy
- This term is used by feminists to describe a society that is dominated by men. Patriarchy is the systematic oppression of women by men and is pervasive throughout society.
- Feminists argue that women have been oppressed by men in different spheres of society: the state (being denied representation); the household (being confined to ‘domesticity’); violence (the ‘dark side of family life’; paid work (women are pushed to lower paid/part time roles or ‘nurturing roles’); sexuality (Germaine Greer argues that women are fored to repress their sexual desires, yet men are encouraged to explore their sexuality); and culture (media images have reinforced the image of the woman as the ‘good wife’, or more recently through size 0 models in advertising).
- Feminists want to overthrow patriarchy and create an equal society. Liberal feminists concentrate on the public sphere, socialists consider the role of capitalism in creating patriarchy and radical feminists view patriarchy as deep rooted and existing in the personal sphere
4
Core ideas of Feminism - Equality and difference feminism
- Most feminists seek equality for men and women and therefore believe that biological differences do not matter. This was the aim of all feminists up to the 1960s and these feminists campaigned for equality in work, education and politics.
- Difference feminists (some, not all, radical feminists) argue that men and women are fundamentally different, they value the differences and celebrate women’s unique characteristics. They argue that ‘equality’ feminists suggest that women should adopt male characteristics and therefore deny their own natures. This then alienates women.
- Some difference feminists go further and argue that female values are superior male ones. Political lesbianism and separation feminists take this further and advocate for a separate society from men, to enable them to reconnect with female values.
- Difference feminism is controversial amongst feminists as it argued that they undermine the progress that the women’s movement has made.
2
Core ideas of Feminism - Intersectionality
- This idea arose in the 1980s, when feminists challenged the notion of the ‘white, middle class’ nature of the movement.
- bell hooks argued that women were not a homogeneous whole. Forms of oppression were different for women of colour, or women in working class backgrounds. Therefore intersectionality aimed at widening the view of feminism. bell hooks “Feminism is for everybody”.
6
Liberal Feminism
- This approach takes the ideas of liberalism (foundational equality, individualism) and applies it to women. If all individuals are of equal worth, then women should be entitled to the same rights as men. Women should have all the freedom they need to be autonomous, rational individuals in society.
- Liberal key thinker Mary Wollstonecraft was one of the first proponents of liberal feminism. Before her book A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) women’s rights were not on the agenda. She argued that women needed education in order have the same equality as men.
- Liberal feminism argued for:
Liberty – women should be free to determine the nature of their own lives
Women’s suffrage – once women had the vote, they could reform society. This is political equality.
Equality before the law – legal equality. There should be no discrimination against women.
They wanted equal access to the public sphere – therefore they were arguing for the liberal idea of equality of opportunity.
- Liberal feminism is reformist: once the laws have changed in society then the gender imbalance will be removed through democracy. Gender stereotypes will be broken down gradually as girls see women doing traditional ‘male’ roles. It did not challenge the private sphere. Instead, liberals argued that women should have the opportunity to go to work if they choose. If they choose to stay at home, this is their choice. Therefore they do not argue for a radical restructuring of society. They do not argue that patriarchy is all pervasive, or that there is a systematic oppression of women.Instead, liberal feminists focus on highlighting forms of discrimination and using legal and democratic processes to remove them.
- Key thinker: Charlotte Perkins Gilman
Perkins Gilman wrote about the lack of opportunities that females had. She argued that the position of the female in the home was a model of their inferiority in other spheres of their life.
She argued that:
The biological differences between men and women were irrelevant, that women could compete equally with men.
Women had equal brain power to men.
The liberation of women lay in equality of opportunity, and a full place in the world of employment.
Women were culturally socialised into different roles, there was a ‘socialisation’ into a male dominated culture.
Child rearing and housework amounted to domestic slavery, therefore she campaigned for the destruction of the traditional nuclear family and argued for communal living (therefore she departs from liberal thinking here!).
- Key thinker: Simone de Beauvoir
An existentialist (a person is a free individual, capable of acting in own free will). Men are responsible for imposing their will on women.
She described women as the ‘Other’ – different in a way of men’s choosing, they are made by men.
Girls are not born with any nurturing instinct, but they learn this from the society around them. The role that they play in life is created for them by men.
Her solution to this problem was a liberal one: give women the same opportunities as men; through education, work, state funded childcare, legalised abortion and contraception. She also felt that women needed to liberate themselves sexually and from the confines of the oppressive nuclear family.
“one is not born, but becomes a woman. No biological, psychological or economic fate determines the figure that human female presents in society; it is civilisation as a whole that produces this creature, intermediate between male and eunuch, which is described as feminine”.
3
Radical Feminism
- This is a series of different perspectives on the problems posed by patriarchy. But, they all want to:
Destroy the patriarchal society
Revolutionary outlook (though not violence)
They are mostly difference feminists, rather than equality feminists
- Radical views on patriarchy
Key thinker Kate Millett’s ‘Sexual Politics’ (1969) criticised the role of men in a patriarchal society. She said men oppressed women in all aspects of life: in the home, in the economy and generally. Their domination is power. They have an entrenched vie of their superiority.
Germaine Greer in The Female Eunach (1970) argued that men actually hate women and that is the reason for their oppression. Women have been taught to hate themselves which is why they accept this.
Women need to be aware of their inferiority, to liberate themselves
- What are their responses to patriarchy?
Abolition of the nuclear family, replaced by communal living and child rearing.
Sexual liberation and escape from the traditional male-female relationships. Political lesbianism.
The elimination of biological roles (ie, use technology to free women of their biological enslavement). This is called androgyny – women will no longer need men to reproduce, therefore will be free.
5
Socialist Feminism
- Socialist feminists combine their beliefs in Friedrich Engels with feminism. Engels said that women were a key element in capitalism, but had been denied property. Women became the low paid army of labour.
- Marxist feminists therefore look to the destruction of capitalism as the only way to achieve female liberation.
- Sheila Rowbotham – a socialist rather than a Marxist, as she rejects the historical determination of Marx.
- She believes that female oppression has economic roots, but also acknowledges that it comes from the nuclear family and cultural dominance of men. She believes in the economic liberation of women, but believes that they must be truly free from their economic dependence on men.
- Socialist feminists argue that power must be distributed more evenly in society so that even working class women benefit. There must be a change in culture notable in the education of women.
4
Post-modernism feminism
- Post modernists reject the labels and fixed ideas of previous feminists, instead seeing the position of women as more complex.
- Women should be given the freedom to make their own choices – either in the home or outside of it. This is true of sexuality too. Each woman is unique and has their own experience of life and must liberate themselves how they see fit.
- However, battles against political and legal discrimination and the patriarchy continue with postmodern feminists. Intersectionalists such as bell hooks are part of this third wave of feminism.
- bell hooks argues that all women (including women of colour and women of lower economic status) should be included in the feminist debate. She felt that feminist had ignored the plight of women from different backgrounds who faced multiple layers of discrimination, of which gender was only one. Women faced issues of poverty and racism alongside gender discrimination. She argued that children were forced into unnatural gender distinctions.
3
Feminism views on human nature
- The debate about human nature for feminists is over sex & gender.
- Most feminists (equality feminists) believe that biological sex differences are irrelevant and should have no impact in the way that women are treated in society. Men and women are equal in their capabilities, their sex differences are irrelevant and it is only the ‘gender’ and artificial construction of discrimination in society that makes women inferior.
- Difference feminists argue that the biological differences between men and women are essential to understanding the inferior status of women in society. They argue that women should value their differences. Some even assert female superiority.
4
Feminism differences on human nature
- Liberal Feminists:
Liberal feminists believe that HN is the same for men and women. Experiences of women are very different from men due to the artificial construct of gender that men have imposed on women though a patriarchal society. Society needs to be reformed along liberal lines to reveal the true HN of women.
Liberals such as Betty Friedan accept the significance of sex difference, but regard gender differences as artificially constructed, created by a male dominated society (a patriarchy).
The ‘inferiority’ of women is learned behaviour, reinforced by education and culture.
Liberals therefore believe that reform of these institutions (legal changes and educational reform) will end this discrimination.
Simone de Beauvoir:
Gender differences are created by men in society and are not natural. The ‘nurturing’ instinct in women is not something that women are born with, they are taught this. Their role in life is created by men. ‘Women are made, not born’. She devised the concept of the ‘Other’, ie men have characterised women as different, in a way of men’s choosing. She also believed that wives were sex slaves to their husbands.
Her solution to this was education, economic freedom, state funded childcare, legalised abortion and widespread contraception. Women must liberate themselves, seek sexual freedom and freedom from the restriction of the nuclear family.
Charlotte Perkins Gilman: biological differences between men and women are irrelevant. Women are capable of competing equally with men, they have equal brain power.
She argued that the response to this was equality of opportunity and a full place in the world of employment.
“The labor of women in the house certainly, enables men to produce more wealth than they could otherwise could; and in this way women are economic factors in society. But so are horses”.
- Radical Feminists:
Radicals such as Kate Millett, believe gender differences exist in all parts of society and are far deeper than liberals believe them to be. It is also in the home.
Radicals want to destroy this and end patriarchy. They believe there should be a cultural revolution.
Kate Millett:
Argued that the dominance of men was twofold: male superiority in society and secondly in heterosexual relationships. Heterosexual relations are political and part of the patriarchal society, as men are dominant over women. Women therefore needed to find sexual liberation first. She advocated political lesbianism.
DIFFERENCE FEMINISTS argue that the HN of women is different to that of men. Some radicals (Firestone) argued that sex differences were key to the oppression of women. She therefore argued that sex differences between men and women should be removed and androgyny should be introduced.
- Socialist Feminists:
The inferior status of women is due to the system of capitalism. Women, like workers are oppressed.
Patriarchal societies give an inferior role to women, they are a cheap source of labour. In the home they are unpaid labour, in the workplace they mostly occupy part-time, low paid roles. They are the first to be removed when there is an economic downturn. They lack job security.
Therefore, socialist feminists argue for the destruction of capitalism (Marxist feminists) or it’s modification. Women should get the same working conditions as men
Sheila Rowbotham
Men do not recognise or really understand the true nature of the oppression of women. “men will often admit other women are oppressed but not you”.
She wanted a socialist revolution, not a Marxist one as she believed that this narrowed the view of oppression to the economic field only. She saw oppression in the home. She believed that men must be willing to relinquish their dominance in the home.
- Post-modern feminists:
Women have multiple identities, therefore they experience multiple forms of oppression.
They argue against a fixed idea of ‘woman’. They have a more fluid definition. There are many different experiences of being a woman, just as being a man. They argue there is no such thing as a ‘woman’ – ie, it is impossible to generalise because women’s experiences are so vastly different.
Women can then define feminism to what it means to themselves.
Gender is not the sole factor that affects women in society. Gender should be considered alongside race, religion or class to understand the problems faced by women. Women experience oppression in different forms.
bell hooks: argued that black women faced a combination of racism and sexism, meaning that they have the lowest status of any group in US society.
3
Feminism views on society
- Feminists view society as deeply patriarchal in nature.
- Radical feminists believe patriarchy is the key characteristic of a modern society. They therefore believe that patriarchy must be destroyed in order to end female oppression. It must be achieved by revolution, by changing cultural values but also by creating a female counter-culture, separate from a male patriarchal society. This is separation from men.
- Liberals on the other hand, see the solution as reform rather than revolution. Patriarchy is a characteristic of society, not the fundamental aspect of it. Therefore society can be made less patriarchal through gradual political, cultural and legal reform.
4
Feminism views on the state
- Feminists do not have a distinctive theory of the state. Feminists see state under the lense of patriarchy. They are accomplices in the patriarchal system and therefore are part of the male dominated society.
- Socialists see it as an agent of capitalism and therefore is responsible for the exploitation of women. (Rowbotham: the state is the agent of capitalism). Only theextreme modification of capitalism (and therefore the state) will bring about liberation of women.
- Liberal feminists look to the state as the SOLUTION to the problem: if they can improve the position of women by reforming the state, by passing legislation and reforming education. They have made improvements to the state via equality laws, anti-discrimination legislation, laws about domestic violence and legalising abortion and political gains with suffrage.(Simone de Beauvoir: the state reinforces a culture that prevents women from expressing their true identities)
- Radical feminists believe that the problems are so deep rooted that the state is powerless to stop them. The state is part of the PROBLEM: they believe it is a patriarchal institution in itself, therefore needs to be removed. (Kate Millett: the state is an agent of patriarchy, it is part of the problem, not the solution).
2
Feminism views on the economy
- All feminists agree that women are discriminated against in the economic world.
Women are a form of unpaid labour in the home. They are a form of low paid, often part time, dispensible labour in the work force who are quickly discarded in economic slumps.
Women are often paid less than men (gender pay gap). The highest level jobs are often reserved for men (glass ceiling). - Socialists feminists go further: they argue that the source of female oppression is capitalism. Women are the ‘reserve army of labour’ (Engel’s idea that women increase economic out-put in the short term but are quickly discarded when not needed). Rowbotham argues for the overthrow of capitalism and replaced by a society where equality is paramount. Women should unite and organise to form a political group and “..move towards the possibility of a truly democratic society in which every human being can be brave, responsible, thinking and diligent in the struggle to live at once freely and unselfishly. Such a democracy would be communism”.
4
Feminism differences on society
- Liberals feminists believe that patriarchy exists in society.
It is has been taught through the generations and exists in the institutions of education, law and politics. It is in the public sphere.
Solution: Liberals argue that through reform, discrimination towards woman can be removed and gradually society will become less patriarchal.
Charlotte Perkins Gilman:
Society has always assigned inferior roles to women. This is no longer justifiable in a modern society.
Simone de Beauvoir
Socials constraints prevent individuals, not just women from attaining self-realisation and true freedom.
- Radical Feminists
Patriarchy is present in all parts of society. It is deeply embedded and is the most important political division faced by women. ‘The personal is political’. It is the single source of female oppression.
Patriarchy is systemic, institutional ised in the state and a symbol of male power.
Solution: sexual liberation
Kate Millett:
Argued that the dominance of men was twofold: male superiority in society and secondly in heterosexual relationships. Heterosexual relations are political and part of the patriarchal society, as men are dominant over women. Women therefore needed to find sexual liberation first. She advocated political lesbianism.
- Socialist feminists:
Patriarchy has economic origins. Engels argued women have always been denied property throughout history and are oppressed. Nowadays socialists argue that women are exploited parts of the workforce
Solution: the removal of capitalism can only truly liberate women.
Rowbotham: society reflects that dominant position of capitalists and men in general.
- Post-modern feminists:
Society is full of complex relationships between different minorities.
Intersectionality: women have more than one identity in society. Gender is only one of our identities in society. To improve the lives of women in society, all parts of an identity must be addressed, ie, racism must be taken into account too. Oppression is more complex than just gender.
Solution: bell hooks argues that there should be a more equal society so that the multiple disadvantages faced by women can be addressed.
She also argues that men must understand the patriarchy that they are imposing and that women should break free from any preconceptions about themselves. She advocates the power of love to conquer any unhealthy relationships. She argues that women need to ‘unlearn self-hatred’ and ‘no longer see ourselves and our bodies as the property of men’.
2
To what extent is feminism more united than divided? - YES
- They all believe that men and women are not treated equally in society: Women are treated unequally in all aspects of society (the state, the home, culture, sexuality, paid work, violence)
Simone de Beauvoir ‘the other’, bell hooks – this applies to all women ‘Feminism is everybody’ - They believe that the root of the problem is patriarchy. De Beauvoir “..one is not born, but rather becomes a woman”
2
To what extent is feminism more united than divided? - NO
- Liberal feminists and radical feminists differ over the location of discrimination and therefore the solution to the problem: Liberals – public sphere. Solution: Focus on equality in legislation, workplace and education. (Betty Friedan – belief in foundational equality, de Beauvoir; Gilman) Radicals – private sphere ‘the personal is political’. Millett. Focus on private relationships. Solution can be political lesbianism/adrogny.
- The differ over the concept of sex & gender.
Equality feminists argue that gender is an artificial construct, that there is no difference between men and women (apart from biological differences). Difference feminists argue that men and women have different characteristics and therefore should be treated differently.
3
To what extent does the state have a key role in securing feminist goals? - AGREE
- All feminists recognise that the state does serve some useful purpose for women. Feminists agree that the state protects women’s interests to an extent by outlawing discrimination and banning some practices that are harmful to women. Therefore this unifying belief draws the strands together in accepting the useful purpose of the state.
- Feminists believe that the state could do more to enhance women’s position in society. Feminists agree that the state could be useful by enhancing women’s position, showing that an improved role for women is at the heart of all feminism This is a significant belief and shows agreement within feminism
- Socialist and radical feminists agree that the state does not primarily have the interests of women at heart (Rowbotham) Socialist and radical feminists agree that, although the state serves some useful purpose for women, it is not structured to eradicate patriarchy from society, seeing it instead as providing minimal protection for women while allowing their unequal position to be maintained (Millet) This clearly shows agreement between two strands of feminism that the state does not serve the interests of women but instead serves patriarchy
3
To what extent does the state have a key role in securing feminist goals? - DISAGREE
- Liberal feminists believe that the state can play a role in promoting female emancipation which sets them at odds with other feminists, Liberal feminists believe the state is key to female emancipation, whereas radical feminists believe that the state creating an equal, legal framework is insufficient to remove patriarchy (Millett). Postmodern feminism argues that the state ignores women of colour (bell hooks) This shows that there are clear differences between liberal and radical feminists over the role of the state in society, which does not seem to lend itself to any likely agreement in the future
- Radical feminists disagree with socialist feminists over the state, arguing that it is patriarchal at its heart Radical feminists believe that primarily the state promotes patriarchy (Millett), whereas socialist feminists believe it serves capitalism first and then patriarchy (Rowbotham) Therefore there are clear differences in socialist and radical feminists’ views of the primary focus of the state, these differences are fundamental.
- Radical feminists disagree with liberal feminists over where the limits are to the role of the state in protecting women Radical feminists disagree with liberal feminists, believing that the state has a role to play in both public and private spheres by outlawing pornography, ensuring harsher punishment for crimes against women (Millett), whereas liberal feminists believe the state should concern itself only outlawing discrimination in the public sphere. This shows that this level of disagreement is fundamental and that it is an important distinction between the two about the way they see the role of the state.
3
To what extent do feminists agree about the nature of the economy in a future society? - AGREE
- Feminists agree that the current economic system discriminates against women in a variety of different ways. (Gilman) Feminists agree that a future economy must be organised to ensure that women are able to access it on an equal basis to men We can reach a conclusion that there is widespread agreement among feminists about the nature of the economy in a future society.
- Feminists agree that domestic labour is devalued and unpaid and is seen incorrectly as the role of women. Feminists agree that domestic work is not the responsibility of women and that in a future society women should be able to freely choose work which they find satisfying and financially rewarding. We can conclude that there is agreement within feminist about women’s role in domestic work.
- Feminists agree that there are restrictions in women’s ability to access well-paid work in comparison to men. Feminists agree that the economy needs to be organised so women should be motivated and encouraged to access paid economic work in the same way as men. (Gilman) We can reach a judgement that feminists agree that the economy in a future society will be less exploitative and less hierarchical as it will not be based on patriarchal principles.
3
To what extent do feminists agree about the nature of the economy in a future society? - DISAGREE
- Liberal feminists argue that women need equal access and opportunity to the economy whereas radical feminists disagree, arguing that the economy is the embodiment of the patriarchal system Liberal feminists reject fundamental change to the economy in a future society, arguing for legal and political (rather than economic) equality whereas radical feminists insist upon it. We can conclude that liberal feminists disagree with other feminists over the form of the economic system in a future society
- Socialist feminists argue that patriarchy is promoted by capitalism (Rowbotham) whereas radical feminists (Millet) argue that patriarchy is an independent system of oppression Socialist feminists (Rowbotham) support the abolition of capitalism in a future society as an essential element of women’s liberation whereas radical feminists argue that the abolition of capitalism will not remove patriarchy We can reach a judgment that the socialist feminist emphasis on the need to abolish capitalism shows that feminists disagree over the nature of the economy in a future society.
- Post-modern feminists disagree with both socialist and radical feminists arguing that additional factors like colour, class and religion also affects women’s position in the economy (hooks) Post-modern feminists argue that other forms of feminism focus too narrowly on the experiences of white, middle-class women in the economy, ignoring women of colour and working-class women We can form a judgement that postmodern feminists disagree with other feminists over the nature of the economy in a future society
3
To what extent do feminists agree over the best ways to achieve social change? - AGREE
- Most feminists agree that we must challenge gender stereotyping. Most feminists argue that we need to challenge gender stereotyping in order to achieve social change to create a future where ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ are clearly distinguished (Gilman) (De Beauvoir). We can conclude that most feminists agree that challenging gender stereotyping is an important method of achieving social change
- Most feminists argue that patriarchy must be overcome. . Most feminists argue that patriarchy oppresses women and therefore it must be overcome in order to achieve social change.(Millett) We can reach a verdict that most feminists agree that overcoming patriarchy is an important method of achieving social change
- Most feminists argue that women must overcome inequalities in the economy. The division between the public and private spheres, whereby women are pushed into domestic responsibilities and men into paid, high status work, must be removed. We can form a judgement that most feminists agree overcoming inequalities in society is a key way of achieving social change
3
To what extent do feminists agree over the best ways to achieve social change? - DISAGREE
- Liberal feminists argue for gradual reforms, other feminists support more radical change. Liberal feminists argue for gradual reforms to secure legal and political equality and by changing attitudes over time while radical, socialist and postmodern feminists argue for much more radical means to achieve social change. We can conclude that feminists do not agree on the best ways of achieving social change
- Radical feminists and socialist feminists disagree on the means of achieving social change. While both radical and socialist feminists support much more radical change in society, socialist feminists argue that capitalism is the primary source of female oppression whilst radical feminists see patriarchy as the primary source of oppression. We can conclude that although socialist and radical feminists agree that change should be radical, they disagree on what that change needs to be.
- Postmodern feminists disagree with other feminists on whether there is a single explanation for the oppression of women and so look to challenge all the intersecting forms of oppression (bell hooks). Postmodern feminists argue that not all women are oppressed in the same way, and so all these different forms oppression (patriarchy, race, class, religion) must be challenged in society to achieve social change. We can conclude that postmodern feminists disagree with other feminists about how to achieve social change.
