Global quick notes

Question 1

8

Main ideas of liberalism

Answer 1

• Human Nature: Locke: human beings are inherently rational, and capable of making decisions based on logic, rather than being driven by impulses.
• Nature of States: if states are run by rational people, then the nation state will be inherently rational, as well as able to recognise the value of cooperating with others in order to achieve collective goals, and find solutions to global issues.
• Global Actors: liberals recognise the nation-state as an important actor in global relations, but not the only important actor: they argue that IGOs and NGOs have an increasingly relevant role in global affairs
• Society of States: Liberals imagine that states will choose to cooperate when they recognise that working together will benefit everyone. This ‘society’ would be based on norms and rules, which become international law; it would also include non-state actors, such as IGOs, that help enforce and interpret those laws.
  Complex Web of Interdependence: A theory that suggests that the interests of nation-states are closely connected through interactions, such as economic trade and international treaties, which reduces the likelihood of conflict. - Keohane
• The ‘Cobweb’ Model: envisions states and non-state actors being linked up with each other to form the structure of international relations. If one actor breaks, it would cause instability, but the ties between states incentivise each actor to cooperate peacefully.
• Balance of Power: liberals argue that a balance of power can be achieved through soft power, as much as hard power. They argue in favour of a multipolar world order as the best means to achieve global stability, as the absence of a global hegemon would encourage states to cooperate more.
• Economic Development: liberals argue that developed states have a responsibility to aid the economic development of less developed states. They view IGOs as having a key role in coordinating the efforts of the international community.
• Regionalism: liberals argue that states should use their sovereignty to their own advantage, even pooling sovereignty in the pursuit of power. In which case, they support both supranational and intergovernmental organisations as a means of global cooperation, especially for economic interdependence.

Question 2

Iraq Invasion (2003)

Answer 2

• US rationale: Eliminate WMDs & end Saddam Hussein’s regime.
• Outcome: No WMDs found; Saddam toppled.
• Aftermath: Years of instability, rise of ISIS, sectarian violence.
• US withdrawal: 2011.

Question 2

South China Sea Disputes

Answer 2

• China built artificial islands, militarized features, and enforced presence.
• 2016 Hague Tribunal rejected China’s “Nine-Dash Line” claims.
• Opposed by Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia.

Question 3

Gulf War (1990–91)

Answer 3

• Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait (Aug 1990).
• George H. W. Bush led a UN-backed global coalition.
• Liberation of Kuwait under UN mandate.

Question 3

Crimea Annexation (2014)

Answer 3

• Followed ousting of Ukraine’s pro-Russian president.
• Referendum deemed illegitimate by most countries.
• Violated Ukraine’s sovereignty; led to sanctions, no military intervention.

Question 4

5

Global Trade & Interdependence

Answer 4

• US–China: Deep trade ties.
• EU: Free trade & policy coordination.
• Japan–South Korea: Interlinked in tech & auto supply chains.
• COVID-19 disrupted global supply chains.
• Eurozone Crisis: Greece’s debt crisis exposed fragility of economic interdependence.

Question 4

UN Peacekeeping in Cyprus

Answer 4

• Helped prevent escalation between Greek & Turkish Cypriots.
• Ongoing division, but peace largely maintained.

Question 5

Philosophical & Historical Context

Answer 5

• Kant (1795): “Perpetual Peace” – cooperation reduces likelihood of war.
• Peace of Westphalia (1648): Established modern state sovereignty.
• Edward Said: Civilizations can’t be rigidly defined or predicted

Question 6

Global Liberal Order Trends

Answer 6

• Liberal democracies grew from 35 (1970) to 120 (2013).
• World economy has quadrupled since the 1990s.

Question 7

6

Global Economy & Trade

Answer 7

• Vietnam: Corporate tax at 20% to attract foreign investment.
• 1997: Capital flight from Thailand triggered Asian financial crisis.
• 2007–08: Subprime mortgage crisis → Lehman Brothers collapse → global trade shrank by 9%.
• China (2015): Exports worth $2.282T, +20.2% since 2011.
• Gross world production: $41T (2000) → $77.8T (2014).
• World Bank: People in extreme poverty fell from 1.9B (1980) to 700M (2024).

Question 8

Technology & Media

Answer 8

• META: 3.29B users globally.
• Apple: Sold 1 billion iPhones by 2016.
• 24/7 News: CNN, BBC etc., influence public policy (e.g., Ukraine, Black Hawk Down).

Question 8

5

Corporate Shifts & Inequality

Answer 8

• Burberry moved from Wales to China, causing job losses in Treorchy.
• Nike (El Salvador): Workers earn 8 cents per shirt (1% of retail price).
• Freedom 251: World’s cheapest phone at $2.99.
• China: Poorest 25% own 1% of wealth; top 1% own 33%.
• Monsanto: Fined for harmful BST hormone; Exxon fined $125M, GE $9.5M.
• 2016 Trump said globalisation ‘left millions of our workers with nothing but poverty and heartache’ and spoke of ‘American carnage
• rural areas account for 3/4 of people living on less than 1$ a day

Question 9

Terrorism, Security & Cyber Interference

Answer 9

• Al-Qaeda: 9/11 attacks on US (2001).
• Wagner Group: Russian paramilitary serving Putin’s ideological goals.
• 2016 US Election: Russian cyber interference via Hillary Clinton emails.
• Brexit: Russian Twitter bots stoked division, per UK Whitehall report.

Question 9

5

Environmental Governance and Cultural Globalisation

Answer 9

• CO2 up 40% in 250 years due to humans.
• Paris Agreement (2015): 195 states committed to keep warming under 2°C.
• Target: 40% emissions reduction by 2030.
• McDonald’s: 35,000+ outlets in 100+ countries, tailored menus globally.
• English: 35% of global mail; 40% of radio content.

Question 9

5

Civil Liberties & Human Rights

Answer 9

• BLM protests: 278 in UK (280K participants), 26M in US.
• 2010: UK ruled Section 44 of Terrorism Act unlawful → repealed.
• 1999: UK recognises LGBTQ military rights after court ruling.
• Prisoner voting: UK defied ECHR ruling.
• 2016: Russia asserted national law over ECHR.

Question 10

Conflict & Global Institutions

Answer 10

• Gulf War (1990): US-led 42-country coalition liberated Kuwait.
• Crimea: 2016 Russian annexation condemned; Russia withdrew from Rome Statute.
• UNSC P5: USA (2002) passed act allowing forceful retrieval of ICC-held soldiers.
• ICTY (1993): Convicted Ratko Mladić for genocide.

Question 11

Theoretical Perspectives

Answer 11

• Kant (1795): Perpetual Peace – cooperation deters war.
• Kenneth Waltz: Interdependence can promote both peace and conflict.
• Naomi Klein: Free trade zones exploit labour, workers can’t afford 3 meals/day.

Question 12

🔥 Power and Global Influence
Hard Power Examples:

Answer 12

• Trump’s 2017 cruise missile strike on Assad regime.
• Clinton-era NATO bombings in Bosnia (1995) and Kosovo (1999).
• Bush’s coalition to liberate Kuwait under UN mandate (1990).
• China’s Sarmat nuclear weapon development and South China Sea militarisation.

Question 13

China:

Answer 13

• GDP increased 90x since 1978.
• 2nd largest global economy, expected to overtake USA’s GDP by 2028. Generally accepted that China will overtake USA’s GDP in 2028 due to COVID, growing 5.7% annually until 2025, and 4.5% annually from 2026-2030
• Real defense spending up 170% since 2002.
• Invests in strategic infrastructure (e.g., Nicaragua Canal, Belt & Road).
• Major AI investment, medical data acquisition (UK Biobank).
• Trade war with the US (tariffs, Boeing bans, semiconductor nationalism).

Question 14

Soft Power Examples:

Answer 14

• Confucius Institutes: 2,500 Chinese-funded cultural schools worldwide.
• Obama’s Cairo Speech as diplomatic engagement in the Middle East. Middle East - Clinton used US influence to encourage the acceptance if the Oslo accords between the Palestine Liberation Organisation chairman - Yasser Arafat and Israel’s PM Yitzshak Rabin
• Nye: “Having a smile can be a soft power resource.”
• Hosting of peace negotiations (e.g., Sudan talks in London, 2025).
• McDonald’s restaurants in Israel sell kosher Big Macs without cheese. Their Indian restaurants include mostly chicken, lamb, and vegetarian offerings to cater to Hindus who don’t eat beef.

Question 15

💰 Economic Development and Structural Power
USA:

Answer 15

• World’s largest defense budget ($610B in 2015).
• Structural power: US dollar as global reserve currency, GDP $18.5T (2016).
• Shale Revolution (2018) – became largest oil producer.
• Fall in trust post-Lehman Brothers collapse (2008).
• Tariffs under Trump caused global economic turbulence.
• Palestinian youths wearing Chicago Bull sweatshirts, coca-colonisation, mcdonalisation - has over 35,000 outlets in over 100 countries, sold in every country except North Korea
• Expanding pop estimated 439M by 2050

Question 16

Emerging Giants:

Answer 16

• MINT countries (Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria, Turkey): Predicted top 5 economy by 2075 due to favourable demography and strategic trade locations.
• South Korea: 11th largest economy, beating Russia.
• Africa: Cote D’Ivoire gains from global cocoa trade; Africa vulnerable to exploitation (Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory, “Bottom Billion” thesis).

Question 17

🪖 Geopolitical Conflicts and Security
Russia:

Answer 17

• Military interventions (Syria, Ukraine).
• Domestic repression: doubled political prisoners vs. Soviet era. Securocrats assert traditional values are being corrupted by liberal and licentuos West and only they can defend them. Russia shot down a passager plane in Belarus and hijacked to arrest a local dissident
• Meddles in Western election, peddles anti-vaccine propoganda and fights proxy wars in Africa and Middle East
• Uses propaganda (anti-vax), cyberwarfare, and election meddling.
• Large share of budget goes to security. Russia has x2 as many political prisoners than at the end of the Soviet era, 1/3 budget spent on military and security
• Sarmat nuclear missile capable of 12 warheads and dodging radar.

Question 18

Sudan Crisis:

Answer 18

• Worst humanitarian crisis globally (2025).
• 13 million displaced; 10M deaths linked to internal conflict and state fragility.
• UN and NGOs accuse international community of inaction.
• UK-led peace talks sidelined by Ukraine and Gaza crises.

Question 19

📉 Trade, Investment & Globalisation US-China Interdependence:

Answer 19

- Trade value ~$690B (2022). - Co-operated on Paris Climate Agreement (2015), but clashing on tariffs and tech. - Trump Slump: Foreign visitors to US dropped post-2017.

Question 20

FDI & Global Capitalism:

Answer 20

- Chinese ownership of Western firms: House of Fraser, Pizza Express. - AIIB and WTO membership. - Loans to Sri Lanka ($200M airport) and Pakistan ($60B). - Concerns about “debt trap diplomacy.”

Question 21

🌍 Development & Humanitarianism UN & NGOs:

Answer 21

- Humanitarian aid, sanctions, and military enforcement. - Peacekeeping missions: Mozambique (1992), Cambodia (1993). - 5,000 peacekeepers in 1990 → 80,000 in 1994. USA GDP in 2016 was 18.566 tr and US dollar main form of structural power in global economic governance and international currency

Question 22

Progress in the Global South:

Answer 22

- Share of population in extreme poverty fell from 30% (2000) to <10% (2014). - Global health and education access improved. - Paris Agreement: Global commitment to limit temperature rise to 1.5°C.

Question 23

Challenges:

Answer 23

The Arab Spring began in Tunisia in 2010, when the population protested against authoritarian regime - regime change and democratic elections in Tunisia prompted a wave of protests calling for greater democracies in countries across the Arab World - including Egypt, Iraq, Libya and Yemen - Sub-Saharan Africa still hit hard by globalisation. - Arab Spring led to instability in Libya, Syria, Yemen. - Structural inequalities persist despite economic growth.

Question 24

🧠 Theoretical Lenses

Answer 24

- Joseph Nye – Soft power, structural power, and Pax Americana ("not since Rome..."). - Mearsheimer – Realist take: China’s rise not peaceful (Thucydides Trap). - Wallerstein – Global South exploited via core-periphery relationships. - Kissinger – Viewing China as a threat may become a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Question 25

🏛️ Global Governance – Political & Economic Brexit & UK Sovereignty

Answer 25

- Independent trade: UK made separate deals with Australia, NZ, Japan. - Internal Market Act 2020: Asserted UK-wide market unity; ensured regulatory consistency post-Brexit. - Immigration policy: Stricter, points-based system — departure from EU freedom of movement.

Question 25

United Nations – Successes & Failures

Answer 25

Successes: - Cyprus (1964): Peacekeeping to prevent ethnic violence. - Liberia (2003): Supported democratic transition post-civil war. - Sierra Leone: Disarmament and peacebuilding after decade-long civil war. Failures: - Rwanda (1994): Inaction during genocide; 800,000 killed. - Bosnia (1995): UN safe zones failed; Srebrenica massacre (8,000 killed). - Somalia: No central gov, ended after "Black Hawk Down" incident.

Question 26

UN Systematic issues

Answer 26

- Veto power: Russia used it 129 times; major obstacle to enforcement. - Oil-for-Food Programme: Corruption scandal in Iraq. - Funding deficit: $1B shortfall in 2018; US owed $381M in arrears.

Question 27

NATO

Answer 27

- Uneven commitment: Only 9/30 members meet 2% GDP target. - US pressure: Trump’s threat — Russia may attack if allies don't pay 5%. Operations: 1995 Deliberate Force (Bosnia) and 1999 Allied Force (Kosovo): Show military capacity and humanitarian intent.

Question 28

World Bank & IMF

Answer 28

- Criticism: Dominance of Global North in funding and decision-making. 2011: China/India got $900B in private capital vs. $8B from World Bank. Focused too broadly — should target fragile states. - Debt Crisis: Poor states 61% more indebted in 1990s than in 1982. Introduced Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (2002). - Resistance: Asian states resisted reforms seen as neo-colonialism.

Question 29

🌍 Global Governance – Environmental Climate Crisis & Impacts

Answer 29

- Floods in Europe (2024): Central Europe & Eastern Spain: 250+ deaths. 413,000 people affected; highest floods on 30% of rivers. - Warming oceans: Ocean heatwaves tripled — damage to coral reefs, storms worsened.

Question 30

Industrial Transition and Case Study – UK Fishing Industry

Answer 30

- Steel industry: Green-powered DRI (Direct Reduced Iron) & electric arc furnaces. Cuts emissions, but slashes steel employment by 80%. Challenge: reskilling workers; less than 10% of iron ore is DR-grade. - Covid catalyzed a digital pivot for fish supply (e.g. Rockfish). Enabled direct-to-home delivery; streamlined local supply chain.

Question 31

🌐 Regionalism & Geopolitical Tensions European Remilitarisation

Answer 31

- EU plans €150B defense fund; Germany removes debt cap for arms. - Poland wants 500,000-strong army; Latvia promotes conscription. - Critics: militarisation without cyber/information resilience is short-sighted.

Question 32

Energy & Russia

Answer 32

- EU considers allowing companies to exit Russian gas contracts using force majeure. - Part of plan to end dependency on Russian fossil fuels by 2027.