4 Origins of Liberalism

- Liberalism is a product of the Enlightenment. It was a reaction to monarchy and the privilege of the 17th and 18th centuries. Educated middle classes desired a greater say in society and focused their fight around civil liberties. The Enlightenment was a movement of the 18th century that rejected traditional ideas. Instead, it promoted thought based on reason, toleration and the promotion of freedom from tyranny. - Liberal thinkers wanted to abolish traditional restrictions on the individual that had been imposed on them by the church or the government. - They believe that individuals are born with different potential but are equal in rights. People should therefore be free to make their own decisions and make the most of their talents and opportunities in life. - Liberal thought is summed up succinctly by Thomas Jefferson in the American Declaration of Independence (1776): “…all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness”.

3 Core ideas of liberalism - individualism

- Liberals believe in the importance of individualism over that of a social group. Immanaul Kant: all individuals are unique and have self- worth. Each individual has intrinsic value. - Classical liberals: believe in ‘egotistical individualism’ (people are self- seeking and self-reliant). To them, society is less important than the individual, it is merely a collection of independent individuals. - Modern liberals: believe in ‘developmental individualism’. This means that individual freedom is linked to a desire to create a society in which an individual can grow and flourish. Therefore there is less emphasis on self- interest and more focus on society. State intervention is encouraged.

3 Core ideas of liberalism - Tolerance

- This is a willingness to respect values, customs and beliefs with which you disagree. - It is a natural right and should not be removed. - It is connected to the idea of religious toleration, but has been widened in its definition in recent years (ie, considerations of same sex marriage)

4 Core ideas of liberalism - Freedom/liberty

The most important liberal value. - Early liberals were concerned by the ways that authoritarian governments claimed a right to take away decisions on behalf of the people. But they realised that freedom could be absolute. Laws were necessary to protect people from interfering in each other’s rights Locke: “Where there is no law, there is no freedom”. - Liberty is a key idea of ‘utilitarian’ thought. Jeremy Bentham argued that each individual could decide their own interests. He devised the idea that human actions are motivated by a desire to pursue pleasure and avoid pain. Governments should not prevent people from doing what they want unless it causes others harm. Bentham also argued that ‘the greatest happiness for the greatest number’ was key to society. - Liberal thinker: John Stuart Mill also followed Bentham’s ideas but added to them as he felt they were too simplistic. He developed the idea of NEGATIVE FREEDOM. This means that individuals should only be subject to external restraint when their actions affect others not when they only affect themselves. This is therefore freedom from interference from others. - Later liberal thinkers developed this idea: TH Green argued that Mill’s idea of liberty was too limited as it meant that society was only a collection of independent atoms. Instead, Green argued that society was an organic whole, where people have a common goal, as well as pursuing their own interests. POSITIVE FREEDOM came out of this idea. This means that individuals should be able to control their own destiny, develop their own talents and achieve self-fulfilment. Some limited state intervention is necessary to help individuals. Positive freedom is the capacity to act on your own free will.

4 Core ideas of liberalism - Limited government

- Liberals believe that a state is necessary, as chaos and disorder would appear without it. They mistrust excessive state power and oppose the concentration of political power. Liberals believe in the separation of powers - Lord Acton “Power tends to corrupt, absolute power corrupts absolutely”. - Liberals want limited government with checks and balances; they support constitutionalism where power is distributed in the system. - Liberal governments would also have a Bill of Rights. - The economic system that supports the state would be laissez faire capitalism.

4 Core ideas of liberalism - Equality

- Liberals emphasise equality of opportunity; the idea that each person should have the same chance to rise/fall in society. There will be differing outcomes because people have different potential and ability. - Liberals traditionally believe in foundational equality, which means that people are born equal, have equal value and have equal rights. Therefore they have formal equality (they are equal in law and political rights) and are equal before the law. - Classical liberals believe that individuals with different talents should be rewarded differently, therefore there will be social inequality. People have incentives to work hard and use their talents. Society is therefore meritocratic. Key thinker Mary Wollstonecraft extended this idea to women. She felt that women were no less rational than men and therefore were entitles to the same rights as men. - Modern liberals have different ideas on equality. Many favour some state intervention to narrow social inequality, they believe that true equality is not possible without social justice. However, they do not believe in total equality of outcome, like socialists do. (Key thinker John Rawls favours state intervention to achieve social justice and equality)

3 Core ideas of liberalism - Liberal democracy

- Liberals support the idea of liberal democracy (free elections/limited government/respect for civil liberties/government based on the consent of the people) - John Locke’s ‘Social Contract theory’ from his book ‘Two treatises of government’ (1690) argued that people gave their consent to be government and may rebel if the government breaks its contract to the people. - Liberals promote democracy – but not to the extent of minority views being suppressed. They fear the ‘tyranny of the majority’.

3 Core ideas of liberalism - Rationalism

- Enlightenment thinkers place human rationality/reason at the heart of their ideas. - Individuals should be free to exercise their own judgement without guidance. - People should make their own decisions and should take responsibility for these.

2 Liberalism differences in human nature

- Classical liberals believe that individuals are innately blessed with these characteristics Emphasise egotistical individualism – people are self-seeking and self-reliant. Wollstonecraft: Women are rational beings too, they are independent beings capable of reason. As both women and men are rational, optimistic and capable, women should have the same rights as men. JS Mill: Human nature is not fixed, it is possible to progress and improve it. Humans take actions that are either ‘other regarding’ or ‘self-regarding’. Humans should be free to carry out self regarding actions without intervention by others/the state. (This is the harm principle) People should be tolerant of other’s views. - Modern Liberals: Modern liberals: these qualities are potential features and can be developed by enlightened liberal authorities. You are ‘enabled’ - you can become something better and can fulfil your potential (developmental individualism) Rawls Humans are selfish, but are also empathetic. They not only value liberty but are also concerned about those around them. This is the basis of the ‘veil of ignorance’ test, where humans would naturally create a fairer society if it were designed from scratch. Humans are rational and empathetic. Individuals would naturally choose to improve the lot of the poorest, but they still want scope to advance and improve themselves (which makes him different from socialists as he believes there will still be inequality of outcome and there will still be a gap between the rich and the poor). Friedan: All individuals should seek control over their lives, including women who had yet to reach their potential.

4 Liberal attitudes towards... Society

- Their optimistic view of human nature informs their views of whether society can exist. Conservative thinker Hobbes had argued that human nature was so selfish and ruthless that no society could exist without a strong state. Locke challenged this view: he felt that there was a natural society which had natural laws and therefore natural rights (eg the right to life, property). These all existed before the state, therefore for liberals, life before the state was not ‘nasty, brutish and short’, but actually quite pleasant. This view of a natural society is why liberals place emphasis on the role of the individual, rather than the state. - J S Mill argued that the purpose of a society was to facilitate individualism. Each individual rationally pursues its own interests and seeks freedom. - Modern liberals believe that industrialisation has made individuals less autonomous and therefore they need the state to set them free. - Society predates the state, as there is a natural society with natural rights in the state of nature before a social contract is drawn up. Emphasis on individual role in society. There is equality of opportunity in society. There is foundational equality (all people are born equal) and formal equality (people should have the same legal rights)

2 Liberalism differences about society

- Classical Liberals believe in: Negative liberty: JS Mill: applied the harm principle to all in society and devised the idea of a society being for ‘ the greatest happiness for the greatest number’, as people would not harm others. Individuals should not face external restraint, unless they are causing harm to others. Social inequality is inevitable due to peoples differing talents. The state should not intervene. - Modern liberals rejected the classical interpretation of negative liberty as it reduced society to a collection of autonomous individuals. They argued that people act for the common good too, hence there is some society. They argue for positive liberty instead. Rawls: To create a just society, individuals need formal equality and greater social and economic equality. Therefore an enabling state is required. Humans would create a society that is fairer, where poor people are given better chances. This society would be more equal. The veil of ignorance would prevent people from knowing their place when devising this society, so it would be more fair.

3 Liberalism attitudes towards... The Economy

- Liberalism believes that private property is the main element of society. Property is a natural right. Liberals therefore support an economy that puts private property at the centre. Capitalism is the preferred economic model. Capitalism is seen by liberals to benefit everyone. - Classical liberals supported ‘Adam Smith’s ‘The Wealth of Nations’, which argued for private enterprise, private property and ownership in a laissez-faire economy. He described the ‘invisible hand’ of market forces that would create wealth, which would then trickle down. - Modern liberals believe in capitalism, but prefer a mixed economy with greater state intervention.

3 Liberalism attitudes towards...the state

- Classical and Modern liberals do have common ground about the state. They both believe in the decentralisation of government, that government should be limited and that civil rights should be protected. There is government by consent. (john Locke: social contract theory) (Betty Friedan believed in the virtues of the US Constitution believing that it gave people the capacity to improve people’s lives; she believed the liberal state would beable to improve women’s lives) - They do not like the state. They have a mechanistic view of the state, it is a machine there to serve the interests of the people. Its parts are equal in worth and are interchangeable. - They differ over the roles that the state should play in peoples lives:

EVERYTHING YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT IDEOLOGIES Flashcards by Sofia Gillani

Origins of Liberalism

Liberalism is a product of the Enlightenment. It was a reaction to monarchy and the privilege of the 17th and 18th centuries. Educated middle classes desired a greater say in society and focused their fight around civil liberties. The Enlightenment was a movement of the 18th century that rejected traditional ideas. Instead, it promoted thought based on reason, toleration and the promotion of freedom from tyranny.
Liberal thinkers wanted to abolish traditional restrictions on the individual that had been imposed on them by the church or the government.
They believe that individuals are born with different potential but are equal in rights. People should therefore be free to make their own decisions and make the most of their talents and opportunities in life.
Liberal thought is summed up succinctly by Thomas Jefferson in the American Declaration of Independence (1776): “…all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness”.

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Core ideas of liberalism - individualism

Liberals believe in the importance of individualism over that of a social group. Immanaul Kant: all individuals are unique and have self- worth. Each individual has intrinsic value.
Classical liberals: believe in ‘egotistical individualism’ (people are self- seeking and self-reliant). To them, society is less important than the individual, it is merely a collection of independent individuals.
Modern liberals: believe in ‘developmental individualism’. This means that individual freedom is linked to a desire to create a society in which an individual can grow and flourish. Therefore there is less emphasis on self- interest and more focus on society. State intervention is encouraged.

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Core ideas of liberalism - Tolerance

This is a willingness to respect values, customs and beliefs with which you disagree.
It is a natural right and should not be removed.
It is connected to the idea of religious toleration, but has been widened in its definition in recent years (ie, considerations of same sex marriage)

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Core ideas of liberalism - Freedom/liberty

The most important liberal value.

Early liberals were concerned by the ways that authoritarian governments claimed a right to take away decisions on behalf of the people.
But they realised that freedom could be absolute. Laws were necessary to protect people from interfering in each other’s rights

Locke: “Where there is no law, there is no freedom”.

Liberty is a key idea of ‘utilitarian’ thought. Jeremy Bentham argued that each individual could decide their own interests. He devised the idea that human actions are motivated by a desire to pursue pleasure and avoid pain. Governments should not prevent people from doing what they want unless it causes others harm.

Bentham also argued that ‘the greatest happiness for the greatest number’ was key to society.

Liberal thinker: John Stuart Mill also followed Bentham’s ideas but added to them as he felt they were too simplistic. He developed the idea of NEGATIVE FREEDOM.

This means that individuals should only be subject to external restraint when their actions affect others not when they only affect themselves.

This is therefore freedom from interference from others.

Later liberal thinkers developed this idea:

TH Green argued that Mill’s idea of liberty was too limited as it meant that society was only a collection of independent atoms.

Instead, Green argued that society was an organic whole, where people have a common goal, as well as pursuing their own interests.

POSITIVE FREEDOM came out of this idea. This means that individuals should be able to control their own destiny, develop their own talents and achieve self-fulfilment. Some limited state intervention is necessary to help individuals. Positive freedom is the capacity to act on your own free will.

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Core ideas of liberalism - Limited government

Liberals believe that a state is necessary, as chaos and disorder would appear without it. They mistrust excessive state power and oppose the concentration of political power. Liberals believe in the separation of powers - Lord Acton “Power tends to corrupt, absolute power corrupts absolutely”.
Liberals want limited government with checks and balances; they support constitutionalism where power is distributed in the system.
Liberal governments would also have a Bill of Rights.
The economic system that supports the state would be laissez faire capitalism.

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Core ideas of liberalism - Equality

Liberals emphasise equality of opportunity; the idea that each person should have the same chance to rise/fall in society. There will be differing outcomes because people have different potential and ability.
Liberals traditionally believe in foundational equality, which means that people are born equal, have equal value and have equal rights. Therefore they have formal equality (they are equal in law and political rights) and are equal before the law.
Classical liberals believe that individuals with different talents should be rewarded differently, therefore there will be social inequality. People have incentives to work hard and use their talents. Society is therefore meritocratic.

Key thinker Mary Wollstonecraft extended this idea to women. She felt that women were no less rational than men and therefore were entitles to the same rights as men.

Modern liberals have different ideas on equality. Many favour some state intervention to narrow social inequality, they believe that true equality is not possible without social justice. However, they do not believe in total equality of outcome, like socialists do. (Key thinker John Rawls favours state intervention to achieve social justice and equality)

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Core ideas of liberalism - Liberal democracy

Liberals support the idea of liberal democracy (free elections/limited government/respect for civil liberties/government based on the consent of the people)
John Locke’s ‘Social Contract theory’ from his book ‘Two treatises of government’ (1690) argued that people gave their consent to be government and may rebel if the government breaks its contract to the people.
Liberals promote democracy – but not to the extent of minority views being suppressed. They fear the ‘tyranny of the majority’.

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Core ideas of liberalism - Rationalism

Enlightenment thinkers place human rationality/reason at the heart of their ideas.
Individuals should be free to exercise their own judgement without guidance.
People should make their own decisions and should take responsibility for these.

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What are liberal attitudes towards….

Human Nature

All liberals believe that humans are rational, intelligent and will prioritise happiness. They believe humans are respectful of each other.
Liberals are inspired by the Enlightenment, therefore they have a positive view of human nature. Humans have the potential to bring about change. Humans are rational and use reason.
Humans will not just accept God’s will, they will make their own choices. Any ‘problem’ in society is a challenge to be solved.
Individuals are self-seeking and self-serving (egotistical individualism) but because they are rational creatures, this is not a destructive or dangerous force. Humans will use their logic to realise that violence is not necessary.
Locke: human beings are rational, guided by the pursuit of self-interest, but are mindful of others. They are not destructive in their self-interest as they are rational beings.

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Liberalism differences in human nature

Classical liberals believe that individuals are innately blessed with these characteristics
Emphasise egotistical individualism – people are self-seeking and self-reliant.

Wollstonecraft:

Women are rational beings too, they are independent beings capable of reason. As both women and men are rational, optimistic and capable, women should have the same rights as men.

JS Mill:

Human nature is not fixed, it is possible to progress and improve it.

Humans take actions that are either ‘other regarding’ or ‘self-regarding’. Humans should be free to carry out self regarding actions without intervention by others/the state. (This is the harm principle) People should be tolerant of other’s views.

Modern Liberals:
Modern liberals: these qualities are potential features and can be developed by enlightened liberal authorities. You are ‘enabled’ - you can become something better and can fulfil your potential (developmental individualism)

Rawls

Humans are selfish, but are also empathetic. They not only value liberty but are also concerned about those around them. This is the basis of the ‘veil of ignorance’ test, where humans would naturally create a fairer society if it were designed from scratch.

Humans are rational and empathetic. Individuals would naturally choose to improve the lot of the poorest, but they still want scope to advance and improve themselves (which makes him different from socialists as he believes there will still be inequality of outcome and there will still be a gap between the rich and the poor).

Friedan:

All individuals should seek control over their lives, including women who had yet to reach their potential.

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Liberal attitudes towards…
Society

Their optimistic view of human nature informs their views of whether society can exist. Conservative thinker Hobbes had argued that human nature was so selfish and ruthless that no society could exist without a strong state.
Locke challenged this view: he felt that there was a natural society which had natural laws and therefore natural rights (eg the right to life, property). These all existed before the state, therefore for liberals, life before the state was not ‘nasty, brutish and short’, but actually quite pleasant. This view of a natural society is why liberals place emphasis on the role of the individual, rather than the state.
J S Mill argued that the purpose of a society was to facilitate individualism. Each individual rationally pursues its own interests and seeks freedom.
Modern liberals believe that industrialisation has made individuals less autonomous and therefore they need the state to set them free.
Society predates the state, as there is a natural society with natural rights in the state of nature before a social contract is drawn up.
Emphasis on individual role in society.
There is equality of opportunity in society. There is foundational equality (all people are born equal) and formal equality (people should have the same legal rights)

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Liberalism differences about society

Classical Liberals believe in:

Negative liberty:

JS Mill: applied the harm principle to all in society and devised the idea of a society being for ‘ the greatest happiness for the greatest number’, as people would not harm others. Individuals should not face external restraint, unless they are causing harm to others.

Social inequality is inevitable due to peoples differing talents. The state should not intervene.

Modern liberals rejected the classical interpretation of negative liberty as it reduced society to a collection of autonomous individuals. They argued that people act for the common good too, hence there is some society. They argue for positive liberty instead.

Rawls:

To create a just society, individuals need formal equality and greater social and economic equality. Therefore an enabling state is required.

Humans would create a society that is fairer, where poor people are given better chances. This society would be more equal. The veil of ignorance would prevent people from knowing their place when devising this society, so it would be more fair.

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Liberalism attitudes towards…
The Economy

Liberalism believes that private property is the main element of society. Property is a natural right. Liberals therefore support an economy that puts private property at the centre. Capitalism is the preferred economic model.
Capitalism is seen by liberals to benefit everyone.
Classical liberals supported ‘Adam Smith’s ‘The Wealth of Nations’, which argued for private enterprise, private property and ownership in a laissez-faire economy. He described the ‘invisible hand’ of market forces that would create wealth, which would then trickle down.
Modern liberals believe in capitalism, but prefer a mixed economy with greater state intervention.

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Liberalism differences about the economy

Classical liberals believe in negative liberty and a minimal state; but they also have a positive view of human nature.

Therefore they support laissez-faire capitalism, as they believe humans are rational and capable of making decisions for themselves without being guided by the state. This would work with the ‘invisible hand’ of market forces.

Wealth would trickle down to the rest of society and therefore would benefit all.

Free trade needed to be promoted, with tariffs and customs duties being lowered or scrapped. This would bring about Adam Smith’s ‘Wealth of Nations’.

This model is based on an ‘egotistical’ view of human nature alongside human rationalism, which prevents selfish acts and destructive forces.

Locke: state policy should respect the ‘natural right’ to property. The state should be the arbiter between any property dispute.

Wollstonecraft: A free market economy would be energised by women’s involvement, as equally rational individuals.

J S Mill:

Laissez-faire capitalism was essential to progress, individual enterprise and individual initiative. The government should interfere as little as possible in the running of the government.

Modern Liberalism supports government intervention in the economy, via Keynesian economics.

Capitalism is not destroyed, but supported. The harsh effects of unregulated capitalism, with the impact on society would be minimised through the involvement of the state. The state would regulate demand, guide the economy and provide full employment.

There would be government spending programmes to create jobs and stimulate growth during an economic slump.

Rawls: free market capitalism must be restrained by the state’s responsibility towards its poorer citizens.

Betty Friedan: Free market capitalism could be helpful in the advancement of female rights.

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Liberalism attitudes towards…the state

Classical and Modern liberals do have common ground about the state. They both believe in the decentralisation of government, that government should be limited and that civil rights should be protected. There is government by consent. (john Locke: social contract theory) (Betty Friedan believed in the virtues of the US Constitution believing that it gave people the capacity to improve people’s lives; she believed the liberal state would beable to improve women’s lives)
They do not like the state. They have a mechanistic view of the state, it is a machine there to serve the interests of the people. Its parts are equal in worth and are interchangeable.
They differ over the roles that the state should play in peoples lives:

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Liberalism differences towards the state

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Classic liberals believe that the state is purely there for law and order, everything else should be up to the individual. They believe in a minimal state or a ‘nightwatchman’ state, which will only focus on law and order to provide protection from attack.

The state will not interfere in the economy or social life more than is necessary as individual liberty (negative freedom) will be undermined.
The state will provide the framework for trade and help laissez faire economics work.

Some classical liberals, such as Herbert Spencer, argued that social Darwinism could be used to show that some individuals would thrive and others would fail. He described this theory as ‘survival of the fittest’. The government should not intervene and should not provide any welfare. Classical liberals have a fear of the state as they believe any intervention will harm the individual.

J S Mill:

The state should not interfere with self-regarding actions (these actions only affect the individual and harm no one else) as they do no harm to anyone else. The state should stop any action that is ‘other-regarding’ (ie, they do impact/harm someone else). This is the ‘harm principle’. He also believed that the state should be tolerant of diverse views.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Believed that women were not entitled to individual freedom in the state, which contradicted the ‘government by consent’ idea.

Modern liberals believe in an enabling state, to help them achieve their potential.

Government should have a larger role to help individuals to be free. They support welfare schemes to bring about true equality of opportunity. If an individual is held back by their circumstances, then the state has a responsibility to reduce or remove these disadvantages.

Modern liberals are willing to allow the state into peoples lives and want to use it to promote social justice, therefore they do not fear it.

But: they do not want an overly powerful state. They want the government held to account and decentralised. They want citizen’s rights to be protected. They do not want equality of outcome, which socialists argue for.

Rawls: believed that social justice could only be provided by an enabling state, where there was significant redistribution of wealth via the taxation system. There would be large public spending schemes and progressive taxation.

Rawls felt this was consistent with ‘government by consent’ as his ‘veil of ignorance’ experiment suggested that people would naturally create a fairer society.

Classic Liberalism

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Freedom is valued above everything else and is achieved by restricting government power.
Minimal state – Thomas Jefferson “The government that is best is the one that governs the least…when government grows, liberty withers”. Belief in NEGATIVE freedom (the freedom of interference from people / the freedom from restraint). State power should therefore be restrained in order to obtain freedom.
They believe in egotistical individualism – society is made up of rational individuals who can make their own decisions in their own interest.
They prefer the state to be ‘rolled back’ and have individuals make decisions/take responsibility. Individuals should be self reliant and not dependent on the state.

Modern Liberalism

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A reaction to the growth in free market capitalism. Unlike socialists, liberals did not want to remove capitalism, but want to regulate the market to stop excessive inequality. Modern liberals doubt that people can be truly free without help / intervention from the state.
They believe in:
Positive liberty, An enabling state, Enthusiasm for constitutional reform, Social liberalism and greater calls for toleration.
Belief in POSITIVE FREEDOM.They believe negative freedom is necessary, but it is not enough for society to thrive. Negative freedom will become the “freedom to starve” for poor people and those who lack control over their life. Modern liberals believe that these people need help therefore they value POSITIVE FREEDOM.
Positive freedom is: Self mastery and Self realisation. State intervention take place to help individuals reach their potential and free people from social evils such as poverty.
Developmental individualism (ie, allowing people to grow and be empowered).

To what extent do modern and classical liberals agree over the role of the state? - AGREE

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Liberals believe a state is necessary to guarantee freedom (Mill). Liberals agree that preventing harm to others (Mill) is a key role for the state, as it ensures that individuals have as much freedom as possible (AO2), therefore this can justifiably be seen as a unifying feature of liberalism, showing that preventing harm is an essential role for the state (AO3)
Liberals believe states must emerge via consent (Locke). Liberals support social contract theory as a core principle of liberalism, which shows the state as a voluntary contract between the state and citizens (AO2), consequently this is crucial for all liberals as the commitment to social contract is at the heart of the liberal view of state (AO3)
Liberals support a state to maintain order (Locke). Liberals agree that society needs a state in order to uphold order and ensure maximum freedom, this is a core principle for all liberals as, at the heart of liberalism, is a
commitment to individual freedom (AO2), thus this leads to deep agreement amongst liberals over their commitment to the state, which they agree is the only way that individual freedom can be guaranteed (AO3).

To what extent do modern and classical liberals agree over the role of the state? - DISAGREE

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There are clear ideological differences between the two on the role of state: classical liberals disagree with modern liberals, believing the sole purpose of the state is to ‘prevent harm to others’ (Mill) and to create order, as they believe the state has great potential for evil, whereas modern liberals believe the state has more potential for good, seeking to extend it beyond its basic function of ensuring order and preventing harm (Rawls) (AO2), this shows, therefore, fundamental differences in their
view of the state’s purpose based on differing interpretations of freedom and the benign nature of the state in its reach (AO3)
Classical liberals support a minimal ‘nightwatchman’ state, which is also shown in their commitment to free-market economics
classical liberals disagree with modern liberals over the role of the state in the economy, believing free-market economics to be the best way to guarantee freedom, whereas modern liberals support Keynesian economics requiring state intervention (AO2), consequently showing a clear, irreconcilable conflict between them as their different views on how to run the economy are directly related to their different views on the role of state
Modern liberals support an enabling state to help individuals to become free (Rawls)
and believe a Keynesian economy helps individuals achieve greater freedom. Modern liberals disagree with classical liberals about the state’s ability to enhance individual freedom, arguing that a larger, enabling state can help people to be free (Rawls), whereas classical liberals believe that any increase in the state automatically limits an individual’s freedom (AO2), therefore modern and classical liberals are diametrically opposed with regard to whether the state enhances freedom or diminishes it (AO3)

To what extent is liberalism more concerned with society than the economy? - AGREE

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Modern and classical liberals disagree over the significance of the economy over society
Classical liberals believe that a thriving free market economy was the vehicle for a free society, whereas Modern liberals place the needs of wider society above an un-regulated economy (Rawls) We can conclude that classical liberals value the economy, but modern liberals place a higher value on society than on the economy
Liberals like Mill argued that human flourishing and individuality were important aspects of a liberal society. However, these notions of a society where individuals can flourish are hindered by a laissez faire economy
To conclude, the economy can work against the aims of society.
Liberals value the principle of equality of
opportunity in society. However, whereas classical liberals believe this is delivered by a free-market economy, modern liberals disagree
Showing that modern and classical liberals
disagree over whether the economy can
deliver key societal aims.

To what extent is liberalism more concerned with society than the economy? - DISAGREE

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For all liberals both classical and modern,
society and the economy were central (Locke)
These two views and principles are indivisible – and to place one of more importance to other would deny the larger picture which liberalism subscribes to. To conclude, all liberals promote a free society and a capitalist economy.
For all liberals, both the freedom of the
economy and a free society were part of the
wider ideals which they wished to promote.
A free economy was vital for both innovation and growth in the economy and in society. We can conclude that a freedom in the economy leads to a society where individual choice is supreme
Liberals have been radical in their approaches
to the economy and to society. Liberals were the first to promote the idea of a free society where individuals were paramount and
included in this ideal was a free-market economy. We can conclude that for liberals their concern for society and the economy has
given them a radical edge

John Locke (1588-1679)

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Social contract theory – society, state and government are based on a theoretical voluntary agreement.
Limited government – that government should be limited and based on consent from below.
Developed the notion of innate rights (which was very influential in shaping the US constitution).
Based government on the notion of consent and the individual’s right to withdraw that consent.

Mary Woolstonecraft

(1759-1797)

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Reason – women are rational and independent beings capable of reason.
Formal equality – in order to be free, women should enjoy full civil liberties and be allowed to have a career.
Championed the case for women to have educational rights which would then in turn advance their social and economic position to be equal with men.
Once educational provision was made available to women other civil rights would follow and gender equality advanced.

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

- Harm principle – that individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals. - Tolerance – belief that the popularity of a view does not necessarily make it correct. - Wished to advance individual liberty with the notion of the ‘harm principle’ and the so called ‘self-regarding right’. - Favoured tolerance and plurality in that out of a wide range of ideas the best ones would triumph.

# 4 John Rawls (1921-2002)

- Theory of justice – opinion that society must be just and guarantee each citizen a life worth living. - The veil of ignorance – a hypothetical scenario where individuals, agree on the type of society they want from a position where they lack knowledge of their own position in society. - Supported a positive role for the state in supporting individuals. - Aimed to achieve social justice from a platform of opportunity in line with liberalism.

# 4 Betty Friedan (1921-2006)

- Legal equality – women are as capable as men and that oppressive laws and social views must be overturned. - Equal opportunity – women are being held back from their potential because of the limited number of jobs that are 'acceptable’ for women. - As Wollstonecraft argued for education to be advanced to women, Friedan wanted career opportunities to be advanced for them. - Argued that women should have the right and opportunity to break the confines of domestic life to play a fuller and equal role in public life.

# 2 Origins of Conservatism

- Conservatism was a response to the Enlightenment, a reaction to the immense change in ideas and challenge to the traditional authority. Conservative thinkers viewed the events of the French Revolution with alarm. - Conservatism is about preservation, but not just this. It is also about change. Conservatives welcome change but choose to reform in a tried and tested manner, drawing on the experiences of the past. Burke: “A state without the means of change … is without the means of its conservation”. Another way of describing it is “changing to conserve”.

# 5 Core ideas of Conservatism - Pragmatism

- Pragmatism is the rejection of theory and ideology and the use of reality/practical experience. Pragmatists are flexible and will make decisions based on what works, in the best interests of the people, creating social stability. - Oakeshott: “To be a conservative is to prefer the tried to the untried”. - This view is connected to the view of human nature, as humans are incapable of comprehending the complex reality of the modern world. They do not possess reason, therefore abstract ideology is unsuitable and too rigid. - Traditional conservatives value pragmatic thinking. Burke saw it as an essential way of facilitating natural change in a society (see above quote). Cautious pragmatism brings about necessary change. Revolutions instead bring chaos. Society needs order and tradition, these can only be achieved by pragmatic change. - One nation conservatives (Oakeshott) have adopted a pragmatic approach to the economy, developing a ‘middle way’ of state intervention alongside private property and enterprise.

# 4 Core ideas of Conservatism - Tradition

- Conservatives are attached to traditional institutions, customs and practices that have developed over time. Early conservatives also wanted to protect religious institutions as they believed society was created by God. - Traditional conservatives (Burke) believe that tradition represents the accumulated wisdom of the past. Institutions such as the monarchy have proven their worth over time and therefore should be maintained so that future generations can benefit from them. - Burke: society was a “…partnership not only between those who are living, those who are dead and those who are yet to be born”. - Tradition is also important as it gives society and an individual with a sense of identity; it creates social cohesion giving people strong ties together in a community. Any attempt to remove tradition will lead to instability and anxiety.

# 3 Core ideas of Conservatism - Human imperfection

- Pessimistic view of human nature, people are flawed and incapable of perfection. - Human nature is immutable (constant). - It must be kept in check by strong authority.

# 4 Core ideas of Conservatism - Organic society & state

- Society and social groups give individuals a sense of identity and security. In turn, humans in a society accept duties and responsibilities (such as being a parent, a neighbour). This represents true freedom – the acceptance of social ties and obligations. Without society, humans would be atomistic (self-interested and self-sufficient individual with little connection to others). - Conservatives believe in an organic state/society. It is like a living being with all parts working together to create harmony. There is a balance between all institutions and removing one will harm all. These components have been formed through history and tradition. - There is a belief in hierarchy and authority. Individuals are born with varying abilities and talents, with different classes performing different roles in the organic society. Therefore there are natural inequalities. - Those in the positions of power have a duty to protect those who has less advantages. There is a principle of ‘paternalism’ inherent in conservatism too. Authority is necessary, is top down, granted by the political leaders

# 4 Core ideas of Conservatism - Paternalism

- Government by the people who are best equipped to deal with it by virtue of their birth. - Traditional conservatives believe there is a natural aristocracy who provide leadership for society. They have a duty to care for those lower in society. They ‘know what is best’ and have wisdom. - One nation conservatives developed this idea with the economy. The state had an obligation to intervene into the economy to provide support and a welfare system to support the poor. - Neo-liberal thinkers of the New Right reject paternalism. They believe that any form of government intervention will dampen human enterprise, plus weaken individual responsibility. Paternalism creates a dependency culture.

EVERYTHING YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT IDEOLOGIES Flashcards

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