EXAM 4 Flashcards
Chapter 20, 21, and 22 (167 cards)
1
Q
Retroperitoneal cavity
A
“behind”
where kidneys reside
2
Q
Adipose tissue (urinary tract)
A
connective tissue, surrounds and cushions kidneys and holds them in place
3
Q
Which kidney is usually lower/higher
A
Left kidney is usually higher, because of the liver on the right
4
Q
Structure of the kidney (medula, cortex, pelvis)
A
renal medulla - middle of the kidney
renal cortex - outer layer
renal pelvis - where urine collects and empties into ureters
5
Q
Renal pyramids
A
cone shaped areas in the kidney where the renal cortex dips down
6
Q
Renal columns
A
dipped down areas of the renal cortex in between renal pyramids
7
Q
Functional unit of the kidneys (how many per kidney, function, what do they filter)
A
Nephrons - 1 to 1.5 mil per kidney
Main function is to filter blood.
Also filter out other things like hydrogen ions, bacteria, antibiotics
8
Q
Functions of the kidneys (one word)
A
Regulate
Remove
Control
Form
9
Q
What do kidneys regulate
A
Volume and composition of body fluids
Blood pressure through production of enzyme renin
10
Q
What do kidneys remove
A
metabolic wastes, excess water, and excess electrolytes
11
Q
what do kidneys control
A
rate of erythropoiesis through the hormone erythropoietin
12
Q
what do kidneys form
A
the active form of vitamin D
13
Q
Renal corpuscle is composed of what 2 structures
A
Glomerulus - cluster of capillaries
Glomerular capsule - Bowman’s capsule, saclike structure surrounding glomerulus
14
Q
Ingoing and outgoing vessels of gromerulus
A
Afferent arterioles - carries blood to the clusters
Efferent arterioles - carries blood away from the clusters
15
Q
Renal tubule structure in order
A
Proximal tubule
Nephron loop / loop of Henle descending limb
Nephron loop ascending limb
Distal tubule
16
Q
Peritubular capillaries
A
network of capillaries surrounding the exterior of the nephron loop
17
Q
Acute vs chronic glomerulonephritis
A
Inflammation of the glomeruli
Acute - 1 to 3 weeks after Streptococcal infection, antigen-antibody complex blocks glomeruli. Most people regain kidney function
Chronic - progressive, eventually the kidneys fail, more likely to die from
18
Q
Nephritis
A
Inflammation of the kidneys
19
Q
Figure 12.20 structure in order (urinary)
A
glomerulus > glomerular capsule > proximal tubule > descending limb > ascending limb > distal tubule > collecting duct > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urinary bladder > urethra
20
Q
Renal corpuscle (figure 20.12)
A
glomerulus > glomerular capsule
21
Q
Urine formation (figure 20.12)
A
Glomerulus > glomerular capsule > proximal tubule > descending limb > ascending limb > distal tubule > collecting duct
22
Q
Parts of nephron (20.12)
A
glomerulus > glomerular capsule > proximal tubule > descending limb > ascending limb > distal tubule
23
Q
Drainage system (20.12)
A
minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter
24
Q
urine secretion (20.12)
A
minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urinary bladder > urethra
25
Storage structure (20.12)
urinary bladder
26
elimination structure (20.12)
urethra
27
3 steps of urine formation
1. Glomerular filtration
2. Tubular reabsorption
3. Tubular secretion
28
glomerular filtration
Water, smaller molecules, ions filtered out leaving larger molecules (proteins) behind in plasma
29
Glomerular filtrate is similar to
interstitial fluid, lymph, and plasma, minus large proteins
30
Pressure that drives glomerular filtration
hydrostatic pressure
31
GFR
glomerular filtration rate
the most commonly measured index of kidney function
32
how many times a day is plasma filtered
60 times a day
33
How many liters of fluid are filtered
How much becomes urine
24 hours: filter 180 L
0.6-2.5 L become urine
34
Glomerular filtrate will continue to be produced if
as long as the systemic blood pressure maintains normal limits
35
what happens when GFR is too slow vs too fast
Too fast: increased urine output, more substances end up in the urine
Too slow: increased reabsorption, decreased urine output
36
keeping GFR constant by adjusting what
to maintain homeostasis, the body must adjust glomerular blood pressure
37
Tubular reabsorption
From the renal tubules to the peritubular capillaries
38
4 items reclaimed through tubular reabsorption
Extra Water
Extra Electrolytes
Amino acids
Glucose
39
Renal plasma threshold
normally all of the filtered glucose is reabsorbed back into the bloodstream,
when the renal plasma threshold is exceeded, some of the glucose will end up in the urine
40
Glycosuria
glucose in urine
41
Diuresis
increase in urine volume
42
endocytosis used to reclaim what molecules
Smaller proteins such as albumins
43
Na+ ions - which percentage is reabsorbed and by what process
approximately 70% reabsorbed by active transport
44
Nephrotic syndrome (what it causes & what it leads to)
proteinuria (plasma proteins are being lost)
leads to edema
45
Tubular secretion
from the peritubular capillaries to the renal tubules
46
Urea, uric acid, each derives from the catabolism of what
urea: catabolism of amino acids
uric acid: the catabolism of purines (adenine and guanine)
47
Gout
type of arthritis- uric acid crystals fill up in the joints
48
pH of urine influenced by reabsorption or secretion of what
by absorption/secretion of H+ (hydrogen ion)
49
Probenecid
1. given with certain antibiotics to block tubular secretions to increase antibiotic levels in the blood.
2. increases secretion of uric acid in patients with gout
50
Urine is ____% water
95%
51
4 common solutes in urine. Which one is the most prevalent
Urea - most abundant
Uric acid
Creatinine
Creatine
52
4 items that should not be in urine
Glucose
Proteins
Ketones
Blood cells
53
Renal clearance (tests)
the rate of which a chemical is removed from the plasma
Tests include:
Inulin clearance
creatinine clearance test
54
Ureters (+ which muscle)
from kidneys to the bladder
smooth muscle for peristalsis that help move the urine down.
55
Urethra
from bladder to the outside of the body
56
ESWL
extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (procedure that breaks down stones)
57
nephrolithiasis
kidney stones
58
2 urethral sphincters
internal and external
59
Male’s internal urethral sphincter prevents what
prevents the flow of semen into the bladder during ejaculation
60
Trigone
floor of the bladder
61
Detrusor
smooth muscle of the bladder
62
micturition
urination
63
The formation of angiotensin (BP regulation - figure 20.19)
Liver: produces angiotensinogen
Kidneys: produce Renin > Angiotensin 1
Renin converts angiotensinogen to Angiotensin 1
Lungs: produce angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
This converts angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2
= causes vasoconstriction, which increases BP
64
medications that lower BP
ACE inhibitors
65
Adult FEMALE body by weight - percentage of water and why
52% water by weight
tend to have more adipose tissue
less H2O
66
Adult MALE body by weight - percentage of water
63% by weight
males tend to have more muscle tissue
more H2O
67
Fluid compartments (types)
Intracellular
Extracellular
Transcellular
68
Extracellular fluid compartment
Outside cells - Lymph, Interstitial cells, Plasma
69
Intracellular fluid compartment
inside the cell membranes (about 2/3 of all fluids)
70
Transcellular fluid compartment
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Aqueous Humor- front of the eye
Vitreous Humor- back of the eye
Serous Fluid
Synovial Fluid- joints
71
2 pressures that cause fluids to move between compartments
Osmotic: higher solute concentration
Hydrostatic: higher to lower pressure
72
H20 intake - how much + where it comes from
2500 mL per day
60% beverages
30% moist foods
10% metabolic water (the chemical reactions that happen in your body
73
Thirst mechanism is normally triggered by
by osmoreceptors, whenever the total body water decreases by 1%
74
Stretch receptors (volume receptors) of cardiovascular system cause thirst when
when blood volume decreases by 10%
75
Water output: 5 ways we lose water from the body
Urine
Feces
Sweat (sensible perspiration)
Evaporating off the skin (insensible perspiration)
Lungs during breathing
76
Dehydration occurs if
If water intake is insufficient
77
Hypotonic hydration (what it is and what it leads to)
water intoxication - replacing H2O but not electrolytes
Leads to hyponatremia (Low Na+)
78
Hypoproteinemia
low plasma protein, causes edema
79
Salt craving may be caused by
Severe electrolyte deficiency
80
Greatest electrolyte loss is how
occurs as a result of kidney function and urine production
81
Regulation of electrolyte output (hormone)
Aldosterone:
Produced in the adrenal cortex (outer part)
Increase sodium ion reabsorption and potassium ion secretion at the same time
82
5 Sources of H+ cations in the body
Aerobic respiration of glucose
Anaerobic respiration of glucose
Incomplete oxidation of fatty acids
Oxidation of amino acids containing sulfur
Hydrolysis of phosphoproteins and nucleic acids
83
Aerobic respiration of glucose
CO2 is produced
84
Anaerobic respiration of glucose
Formation of lactic acid
85
Incomplete oxidation of fatty acids
Formation of acidic ketone bodies
86
Oxidation of amino acids containing sulfur
Formation of sulfuric acid
87
Hydrolysis of phosphoproteins and nucleic acids
Formation of phosphoric acid
88
The 3 chemical buffer systems (H+ regulation)
temporary & fast; first line of defense
Bicarbonate buffer system
Phosphate buffer system: seen in urine formation
Protein buffer system: albumins and hemoglobin
89
The 2 physiological buffer systems (H+ regulation)
longer-term & slow; second line of defense
Respiratory System (lungs): several minutes
Urinary System (kidneys): 1-3 days
90
Respiratory acidosis
increase of CO2, decreased pH
Increased carbonic acid
Labored breathing
can result from injury to the brainstem, alveolar obstruction, diseases (PNA, emphysema)
91
Acid-Base PH range
Normal pH range in blood: 7.35-7.45
Survival range in blood: 6.8-8.0
92
Respiratory acid
carbonic acid
93
Respiratory alkalosis
decrease of CO2, increase of pH
decreased carbonic acid
Factors that can lead to this are anxiety, aspirin poisoning, fever, high altitudes
94
Alkalosis PH
Above 7.45
95
Acidosis PH
below 7.35
96
Metabolic acidosis
accumulation of acids other than carbonic: uremic acids, ketoacidosis (improper oxidation of fatty acids or the loss of bases: prolonged diarrhea
97
Metabolic alkalosis
Loss of hydrogen ions and gain of bases
Loss of H+: gastric lavage and excessive vomiting, diuretic drug use
Gain of bases: overuse of antacids
98
Hypotonic dehydration
Losing more electrolytes than water
99
Compensation
resistance to a shift in pH (chemical & physiological)
If the the problem is respiratory acidosis due to pulmonary disease, the respiratory system is not able to take part in the compensation.
100
Gonads
the organs that produce sex hormones and gametes -Testes and Ovaries
101
Gametes
sex cells (eggs/sperms)
102
Diploid
46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
103
Haploid
23 chromosomes
104
Organs in the Male Reproductive System
testes
105
Gubernaculum
Cord that’s guiding the descent of testes
106
Inguinal Canal
allows for the descent of the testes from the abdomen to the scrotum
107
When testes should descend
usually 1-2 months before birth, if not, then 3-6 months after birth
108
Cryptorchidism
1 or both testes not descended
109
Seminiferous tubules (function)
site of Spermatogenesis
110
Cells that produce testosterone
Interstitial cells (cells of Leydig)
111
Orchidectomy
Removal of 1 or both testes
112
Epididymis (epididymides)
On top of the testis
Sperm go here to mature
113
Ductus deferents
Alco called ductus deferential and vas deferens
Carries sperm from the epididymides into male’s abdomen
114
Vasectomy
removal of vas deferens
115
Seminal Vesicles
Produce a slightly alkaline material to overcome acidity of the female reproductive tract.
Fructose: to help give sperm energy
Prostaglandins: contracting in female reproductive tract
116
Ejaculatory ducts
structure from seminal vesicles to urethra
found inside the prostate
117
Prostate Gland Location
Inferior to the urinary bladder
118
Prostate Gland Function
Creates a thin, milky fluid: includes citrate- nourishes sperm
PSA (prostate-specific antigen) - thins the semen that is forming (PSA levels go up when prostate cancer is present)
119
When does prostate grow again and what does it cause
at or after age 50
enlarged prostate causing difficulty emptying bladder completely due to pressing on the urethra
120
Semen – pH, volume, sperm concentration and how long do they live
pH 7.5 (slightly alkaline)
Volume: 2-5 mL
Sperm concentration: 120 million sperm per mL
Sperm can live up to 3-5 days after ejaculation in male body and up to 5 days in female body
121
Bulbourethral glands
also called Cowper’s glands
provide lubrication for the penis during coitus
122
Scrotum
Sac outside the body where testes are located (decreases the temp by 5 degree F or 3 degrees C)
123
Glans penis
head of the penis
124
Prepuce
foreskin
125
Circumcision
surgical removal of the prepuce
126
Structure of a Sperm Cell
Acrosome - contains enzymes to penetrate an egg and nucleus
Body or mid - piece contains the mitochondria (energy, ATP)
Tail: flagellum (movement)
127
Puberty - Male: primary and secondary sex characteristics
Primary: enlargement of testes
Secondary: deeper voice, hair growth, narrowing of the waist, broadening of the shoulders
128
Male climacteric
Increase in age - decrease in testosterone and decline in sexual function
129
FSH, LH in males (function)
aids with sperm production
130
Libido - how is it controlled
sex drive
controlled by testosterone
131
Female Internal Accessory Reproductive Organs
Ovaries
Uterus
Vagina
132
How are ovaries held in place
by ligaments:
Broad ligament
Suspensory ligament
Ovarian ligament
133
Ovaries, cortex & medulla
Outer portion: cortex
Inner portion: medulla
134
Follicle (function + location)
Egg and surrounding tissue (protect and nourish)
135
Numbers of oocytes throughout life
about 1 million oocytes exists at birth
about 300 000 are left at puberty
300-400 are released from ovary during female's reproductive life
136
other names for uterine tubes
oviducts or fallopian tube
137
Infundibulum
funnel shape end of the fallopian tube
138
Fimbriae
branch-like projections on the end of infundibula
139
Structure of uterus
Upper, rounded portion: Fundus
Middle portion: Body
“Neck”: Cervix
140
Utero-, metro-, hystero-
all means uterus
141
Endometrium
lining of uterus sloughed off during menstruation
142
Myometrium
smooth muscle of uterus
143
Perimetrium
Serosa external to the uterus
144
Vagina structure
mucosa, muscularis, adventitia
145
Vaginal opening
vaginal orifice
146
Thin membrane partially over the vaginal orifice
hymen
147
Fornix/fornices
recesses between the vaginal wall and the cervix
148
Female External Accessory Reproductive Organs
Labia Majora
labia minora
Clitoris
Glens clitoris
Vestibule
149
Labium Majus/Labia Majora
Outer, lip- shaped structures on the exterior of vagina
150
Labium minus/labia minora
smaller, inter structures
151
Female erectile tissue
Clitoris
152
Head of the clitoris
glens clitoris
153
Vestibule
area between labia minora
154
Vestibular glands (names and function)
Bartholin’s and Skene’s glands
Used for lubrication
155
FSH, LH in females
FSH: follicle stimulating hormone
LH: luteinizing hormone
both seen in menstrual cycle
156
which hormone triggers ovulation
a spike in LH triggers ovulation
157
Estrogen (most abundant form and function)
Estrogen - most abundant form is estradiol, effects primary and secondary sex characteristics
158
Primary sex characteristics Female
enlargement of reproductive organs
159
Female secondary sex characteristics
menstruation, breast development, increased adipose tissue, increased vascularization
160
function of progesterone
maintains the endometrium
161
Drop in progesterone causes what
begins menstruation
162
Corpus Luteum
(yellow body)
secretes progesterone
shrinks when progesterone drops
163
Role of progesterone production during pregnancy from corpus luteum to placenta
Once impregnated, Corpus Luteum secretes progesterone for about 10 weeks
Then placenta takes over and begins progesterone production
164
Menarche
1st menstrual period
165
menopause
no menstrual periods for 12 months
166
Mature vs immature sperm
Immature sperm cannot swim
167
Ejaculatory ducts
Structure from seminal vesicles to urethra - found inside the prostate
