Exam1 Flashcards
1
Q
Vesicles that contain oxidase and catalase in order to create and degrade hydrogen peroxide.
A
Peroxisomes
2
Q
Thin outer boundary that separates the interior of the cell from the extra cellular environment.
A
Plasma Membrane
3
Q
Contain DNA that form the chromosomes of the cell.
A
Nucleus
4
Q
Involved in the transport of material between one organelle and another, or between the cell and extra cellular environment.
A
Vesicles
5
Q
Double membrane bound organelle that produces ATP by utilizing oxygen during cellular respiration.
A
Mitochondria
6
Q
The fluid interior of the cell that remains when the organelles are removed.
A
Cytosol
7
Q
Site of synthesis for proteins that are destined to be exported out of the cell or proteins that are to remain in the plasma membrane.
A
Endoplasmic Reticulum
8
Q
Molecules are chemically modified by the addition of sugars or lipids.
A
Golgi Apparatus
9
Q
Contains enzymes that digest sugars, lipids, and proteins to recycle and digest material that is no longer needed by the cell.
A
Lysosomes
10
Q
Central dogma of molecular biology.
A
Replication-> DNA ->Transcription-> RNA ->Translation-> Proteins
11
Q
Which microscope most appropriate to look at a live cell?
A
Phase contrast microscope
12
Q
Similarity and difference between procaryotic and eucaryotic cells?
A
Similarity: both have DNA
Difference: eukaryotic have a true nucleus
13
Q
Which organism would be the most appropriate to study human disease?
A
Mus Musculus
14
Q
Bacteria cell
A
3 micrometers = 10^6 meters
15
Q
Size large to small of cell contents
A
Cell, Organelle, Molecule, Atom
16
Q
All eucaryotic cells contain?
A
Organelles
17
Q
Within cells and organelles are?
A
Molecules
18
Q
All molecules are made up of?
A
Atoms
19
Q
Chemical codes stored in the DNA of all cells.
A
Genes
20
Q
Double stranded polymer chains composed of four individual nucleotides.
A
DNA
21
Q
Four nucleotide that make up DNA.
A
Adenine
Guanine
Cytosine
Thymine
22
Q
All cells contain _______ copies of DNA called _______.
A
Identical
Genome
23
Q
When cells divide they copy their genome through ______.
A
DNA Replication
24
Q
Sum of all 35000 genes in DNA
A
Genome
25
DNA code is deciphered into _______.
RNA
26
RNA turns into _______.
Protein
27
The genetic information contained within the DNA.
Genes
28
Genes are expressed by turning the genetic code into _____ and _______.
RNA
| Protein
29
DNA is copied into RNA code through ________.
Transcription
30
The RNA code is then made into functioning proteins through ________.
Translation
31
The genetic code in RNA is translated into a stretch of ______ ______ that make up protein.
Amino acids
32
There are _____ amino acids that all cells use to make up proteins.
20
33
DNA to RNA and RNA to Proteins
Central Dogma
34
The entire library of genetic information in its DNA.
Genome
35
How the genome is decoded provides instructions for cells to differentiate into what specialized cells?
Fat cells
Skin cells
Muscle cells
Bone cells
36
Certain genes are expressed to make different types of cells is known as?
Differentiation
37
Fat, skin, muscle, and bone cells all contain identical copies of DNA but express their _____ differently.
Genes
| RNA and protein differ
38
Cell Theory
1830's
Matthias Schleiden
Theodor Schwann
Systematic investigation of plant and animal tissues generated the Cell Theory
39
3 criteria of The Cell Theory
1. The cell is the universal building block of all living tissues and organisms.
2. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
3. All cells arise only from pre-exisging cells.
Must have one of the three to be considered living.
40
A single cell organism
Bacterium
41
Multicellular organisms
Plants and animals
42
Contain protein and DNA (or RNA):.
Cannot replicate autonomously
Have no other cellular machine
Rely on cells that they infect to reproduce
Viruses
43
Changes in the DNA which create daughter cells that are not exact copies of parental cells.
Mutations
| They make diversity
44
Mutation where cells are:
1. Less able to survive.
2. Equally viable.
3. Better able to survive.
1. Negative
2. Neutral
3. Advantageous
45
Eliminates the negative, tolerates the neutral, and favors advantageous.
Natural Selection
46
Basis foe cellular evolution.
Mutations over billions of cell generations
47
Ancestral cell
Existed between 3.5 and 3.8 billion years ago.
| Ancestral procaryotic replicated and evolved.
48
Cells have evolved into 3 main domains:
Archaea
Bactria (procaryotes)
Eucaryotes
49
First observer of cells
Robert Hooke 1665
| Cork - plant tissue, what he was seeing was thick cell walls that he believed to be chambers
50
First observer of living cells
Anthonie van Leeuwenhoek 1670s
Built over 500 microscopes
Commonly known as "The Father of Microbiology"
51
The ability to distinguish two objects as separate
Resolution
52
Microscope that can be used on live and dead cells, and use UV and visible light to illuminate objects.
Light Microscopy
Resolution: only 200 nm
Eucaryote cells, nucleus, most bacteria, mitochondria
53
Microscope that can only be used on dead cells Nd uses electron beam to illuminate objects.
Electron microscopy
Resolution: 2 nm
Imaging done under a vacuum
Mycoplasma, viruses, proteins
54
Cells are typically in the micrometer range. They are typically imaged with __________ microscopy.
Light
55
Us cellular components, such as organelles and molecules are in the nanometer range and are typically imaged with ________ microscopy.
Electron
56
Most basic form of light microscopy.
Can only image stained cells.
Since the staining kills the cells, it is used on dead cells.
Bright Field
57
Uses the cells ability to refract light so that cells can be visualized without staining.
Allows you to look at live cells.
Type of light microscopy.
| Phase Contrast
58
Uses the same principle as phase contrast, using the cell's ability to refract light. More sensitive than phase contrast and gives a 3D appearance. Can also be used on live cells.
DIC
| Differential Interference Contrast
59
Uses a UV or laser light source to illuminate a fluorophore.
Fluorescence Microscopy
| Type of Light Microscopy
60
Molecule or protein that absorbs light at one wavelength and emits light at a different wavelength.
Fluorophore
| Dead cells can be stained with a fluorophore.
61
Small molecule that is a fluorophore that binds to DNA.
DAPI
62
Fluorophores that are proteins that can be attached to proteins of a cell and can be utilized to look at proteins in a live cell.
Fluorescent Proteins
63
Most famous fluorescent protein.
GFP
Green fluorescent proteins
Isolated from the jellyfish aequorea Victoria
64
Location of a protein in a cell tells you
A lot about its function
65
A special type of microscope that can create an optical section of a specimen.
Confocal fluorescence microscope
Advantageous for thick secimens
By complaining multiple optical sections a 3D image can be reconstructed
66
Electron microscopy vs Light microscopy
Electron better resolution but kills the sample
67
Electrons are transmitted through the specimen. Parts of the cells will absorb electrons and other parts will allow electrons to freely pass through. Creates a flat 2D image. Allows you to look at the structure and organization of very small objects such as organelles and proteins.
Transmission electron microscopy
68
Specimens are coated with metal. A beam of electrons is directed at the specimen and are reflected go a detector. Creates a 3D image of a specimen. Allows you to look at 3D shape of specimens.
Scanning electron microscopy
| Topographical map
69
Can be used on live and dead cells.
Uses UV and visible light to illuminate objects.
Resolution of .2 micrometers.
Light microscopy
70
Can only be used on dead cells.
Imaging done under a vacuum.
Uses an electron beam to illuminate objects.
Resolution of 2 nanometers or .002 micrometers.
Electron microscopy
71
This outer boundary of the cell.
Plasma membrane
72
Fluid interior of the cell.
Cytoplasm
73
Contains genetic information surrounded by inner membrane.
Nucleus
74
Separate recognizable sub structures bound by thin boundaries called membranes.
Organelles
75
Organelle membranes
Internal membranes
76
Procaryotic shapes and structure
Rod, spherical, and corkscrew
Only a few micrometers in size
Tough cell wall surrounding the plasma membrane
Can replicate in 20 min
Evolve quickly because of conjugation (ex. Becoming immune to antibiotics)
77
Ability to exchange genetic material
Conjugation
78
Mostly live as single-celled organisms in chains of clusters.
Prokaryotes
79
Most of the species of prokaryotes that are familiar to life
| Ex. E. coli
Bacteria (eubacteria)
80
Bacteria that exist in hostile environments
Archaea
81
Cells are bigger. Can live as single celled organisms or multicellular. Contain plasma membrane and membrane bound organelles.
Eukaryotes
82
Difference and similarities between euk. And pro.
Same: plasma membrane, single cell, have DNA, divide
Different: size, membrane organelles. Nucleus, pro have plasmid
83
```
Present in all euk.
Can be one to many micrometers
Contain double membrane
Thought to be derived from bacteria engulfed by ancestor cells
Exist in symbiotic relationship
```
Mitochondria
84
Theory that mitochondria were derived from bacteria that were once engulfed by ancestor cells.
Endosymbiotic Theory
85
Two supports for endosymbiotic theory
Mitochondria have their own DNA
| Mitochondria reproduce by dividing
86
Utilizes oxidation of food molecules to produce ATP
Mitochondria
87
Consume oxygen and release CO2
Cellular respiration
| Mitochondria do this
88
Organelles of plants and algae that contain two membranes and green pigment chlorophyll. Perform photosynthesis and contain their own DNA and reproduce by dividing.
Chloroplasts
89
Exports neurotransmitter a to another cell
Exocytosis
90
Contain a membrane bound envelope and contains DNA that form chromosomes.
Nucleus
91
Membrane bound organelle studded by ribosomes
ER
92
Site of synthesis of proteins that are in the plasma membrane of cells or that are destined to be exported to the outside of the cell
ER
93
Molecular machine that synthesizes proteins
Ribosomes
94
Flattened membrane enclosed sacs that chemically modifies molecules made in the ER
Golgi Apparatus
95
Involved in the transport if material between membranes or material destined for export
Vesicles
96
Exocytosis
Blueprint -manufacture - maturation - transport - release (Exo)
Nucleus - ER - Golgi - Vesicles - plasma membrane
97
Digests sugars and lipids to recycle cellular components no longer needed.
Recycling center or stomach of the cell
Lysosomes
98
Contains oxidase and catalase to create and degrade hydrogen peroxide
Peroxisomes
Oxidase - makes hydrogen peroxide
Catalase - degrades it
99
Entire contents of cell
Cytoplasm
100
What remains after organelles are removed
Cytosol
101
Major site for protein synthesis by free ribosomes
Cytoskeleton
102
Smallest component of cytoskeleton in euk.
| Responsible for generating contracting forces
Actin filaments
103
Thickest filament on cytoskeleton of euk.
Hollow tube filaments
Responsible for pulling DNA into daughter cells during cell division
Micro tubules
104
Intermediate thickness between actin and micro tubules
Strengthen the cell mechanically
Resist pulling and stretching
Intermediate filaments
105
The cell theory that all cells descended from a common ancestor and understanding that cells from one organism can contribute to our knowledge of other organisms
Model Organisms
106
Model Organisms must have:
1. Able to be genetically manipulated
2. Rapid rate of reproduction
3. Able grow under controlled conditions
107
Small single celled fungus
One of the simplest euk cells
Human proteins function in it
Most of the knowledge of cell division came from it
Mainly used to study exocytosis and protein function
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
| Brewers yeast
108
Most common model system to study plants
| Important to understand plant gene function and plant immunity
Arabidopsis Thaliana
| Mouse-ear cress
109
Small genome
| Good for studying genetics and inheritance
Drosophila melanogaster
| Fruit fly
110
Has exactly 959 total cells and each cell has been mapped from the first cell embryo stage
Good for studying development and programmed cell death (apoptosis)
Caenorhabditis elegans
| Roundworm
111
Primary model for cellular and physiological processes specific to mammals and humans
Can mimic human diseases
Mus Musculus
| Laboratory mouse
112
Smallest particle of matter
Atom
113
Protons and neutrons
Nucleus
114
Represents atoms
| Cloud of electrons held in orbit by nucleus
Bohr Model
115
Number of protons in an atomic nucleus
Atomic number
| Ex. Carbon 6 protons 6 neutrons
116
Chemically identified elements with varying number of neutrons
Isotopes
| Ex. 14 carbon: 6 protons and 8 neutrons
117
Mass of an element relative to hydrogen
Atomic weight
| P + N
118
What is the atomic weight if nitrogen with an atomic number of 7?
14
119
Make up 99% of atoms present in humans
H, C, N, O
| Na, Mg, K, Ca P S Cl about .9%
120
Electrons can only occupy discrete orbits of an atom
Electron shell
121
Share an electron between two nonmetals or identical elements
Covalent bonds
122
Give up or gain electrons between nonmetal and metal
Ionic bonds
123
The number of electrons an atom must acquire or lose to attain a filled outer shell determines __________________.
The number of bonds it can make.
124
The state of the outer shell determines ______________.
The chemical properties of the element.
125
An element with 1 electron in its 2nd outer shell acts similar to an element with
One electron in its 3rd shell
126
Most likely to be formed by atoms that have just one or two electrons in their outer shell or just one or two electrons remaining until their outer shell is filled
Ionic bonds
127
When an electron goes from Na to Cl both atoms become _________.
Ions
128
Two ions are attracted to each other through _________.
Electrostatic interactions
129
Bonds that allow for rotation
Single bonds
130
Bonds that restrict movement and is stronger
Double bonds
131
Highly electronegative
O and N
132
Partial positive charge is concentrated towards the H and partial negative towards the O
Polar covalent bond in water
133
C-H bonds are
No polar
134
Polar molecules can interact with other polar molecules through ________ ___________.
Electrostatic interactions
| Water can disrupt these because it is highly polar
135
DNA sugars and proteins
Polar
136
Weaker bonds than covalent and ionic.
H-bonds
137
Contain polar bonds that can form hydrogen bonds and mix well with water
Hydrophilic molecules
| Sugars, DNA, RNA, and a majority of proteins
138
Uncharged nonpolar and do not dissolve in water
Hydrophobic
| Hydrocarbons, C-H bonds, fats
139
Proteins (amino acids) are
Hydrophilic
140
Strength and energy released strongest to weakest for bonds
Covalent -ionic - hydrogen bonds
141
Proteins made of amino acids that catalyze a chemical reaction
Enzymes
| Break apart covalent bonds in living cells
142
Release protons when dissolved in H2O
Acids
| The more H+ the more acidic
143
H+ associated with water
Hydronium ion
| H3O+
144
Accepts H+
Base
| OH- hydroxyl ion is a base
145
Concentration of H+
pH
>7 is basic
<7 is acidic
146
Weak acids and bases that can regulate pH
Buffers
147
Four families of organic compounds in cells
Sugars
Fatty acids
Amino acids
Nucleotides
148
Small organic molecules are used as monomers to create ___________.
Macromolecules or polymers
149
A large molecule made up of smaller repeating units connected to each other
Macromolecules
150
1. Polymer of monosaccharides (polysaccharide)
2. "Polymer" of fatty acids
3. Polymer of amino acids
4. Polymer of nucleotides
1. Sugars
2. Fats, lipids
3. Proteins
4. DNA RNA
151
Building blocks of polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
152
Monosaccharides are linked by
Glycosidic bonds which is a condensation reaction reversible through hydrolysis
153
Two monosaccharides linked together
Disaccharide
154
Larger polymers of monosaccharides
Oligosaccharides
155
Contains thousands of monosaccharides
Polysaccharides
156
Glucose
Monosaccharide
157
Same chemical formula with different arrangements of atoms
Isomer
158
The hydroxyl group of monosaccharides can be replaced by other functional groups
Sugar derivatives
| Ex. Glucosamine
159
Sucrose
Disaccharide of glucose and fructose
160
Polymers that can be highly branched and complex
Polysaccharides
Sugar polymers
Starch and glycogen
161
Polysaccharides comprised of glucose units joined together with long term storage of high energy glucose
Starch and Glycogen
162
Polysaccharides of glucose that forms plant cell wall and provides structural support
Cellulose
163
Linear polymer of N-acetylglucosamine that comprises insect exoskeleton
Chitin
164
Oligosaccharides (smaller chains of monosaccharides) covalently linked to proteins
Glycoproteins
165
Oligosaccharides covalently linked to lipids or fatty acid
Glycolipids
166
Long hydrocarbon chain (hydrophobic) with a carbonyl group (hydrophilic) that behaves as an acid
Fatty acid
| Covalently linked by their -COOH
167
Molecules which possess both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
Amphipathic
| Fatty acids are amphipathic
168
Hydrocarbon tail has no double bonds
Saturated fatty acid tail
169
C=C double bond creates a kink in the fatty acid tail
Unsaturated fatty acids
| Fatty acid saturation gives fats and lipids their properties
170
Serve as concentrated energy reserves
Can produce 6x more energy than glucose
Stored in the cytoplasm as droplets of triaclyglycerol molecules
Fatty acids
171
Three fatty acids linked to glycerol through ___________.
Ester linkages
| When a cell needs energy it can break down the fatty acid tail and release the energy from the c-c bond
172
A process that saturates the oil and makes it more solid
Hydrogenated oil
173
Loose term for fatty acid polymers triaclyglycerol
Commonly insoluble in water and soluble in fat and organic solvents
Typically long hydrocarbon tails
Lipids
174
Ring fatty acids such as cholesterol and testosterone
Steroids
175
Fatty acids are the basic unit of ___________, which make up cellular membranes
Phospholipids
Two fatty tails linked to glycerol
Third hydroxyl on glycerol is linked to hydrophilic phosphate group which is usually linked to a small hydrophilic polar head
176
Fits in between fatty acid tails and helps stiffen the membrane
Cholesterol
177
Cell membranes are also composed of
Glycolipids
| Similar to phospholipids but instead of a phosphate and polar group they contain one or more sugars (oligosaccharides)
178
Phospholipid's ________ properties is what is able to form membranes.
Amphipathic
179
Circle of hydrophilic heads protecting hydrophobic tails
Micelles
180
What would you predict if a cell membrane was made entirely of saturated phospholipids with no cholesterol in the membrane?
The membrane would be less fluid and might break if pulled
181
Rank of membrane composition
Only saturated fatty acids - 1/3 unsaturated, 1/3 sat and 1/3 cholesterol - 1/2 sat and 1/2 unsaturated
From less fluid to more fluid
182
The building blocks for polypeptides like proteins
Amino acids
183
The basic amino acid structure contains:
Amino group
Central alpha carbon
Side chain R group (any 1 of 20 amino acid side chains)
Carboxyl group
184
The three main groups of amino acids:
1. Nonpolar hydrophobic
2. Polar uncharged
3. Polar charged
185
Nonpolar hydrophobic
(9) alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, proline, phenylalanine, methionine, tryptophan, glycine, cysteine
186
Polar uncharged
(5) asparagine, glut amine, serine, threonine, tyrosine
187
Polar charged
Come back to
188
Amino acids linked by covalent bonds
Peptide bond
| Condensation reaction
189
Every polypeptide bond has:
Amino (N-) terminus
| Carboxyl (C-) terminus
190
Formed by a single covalent bond which allow flexibility of the polymer
Polypeptides
191
Single covalent bonds in polypeptide chains allow the chain to adopt multiple __________.
Conformations: 3D shape
| Bonds form between amino acid chains to form stable conformations
192
Polymer of nucleotides
Nucleic acids
193
A molecule of a nitrogen containing ring compound linked to a 5 carbon sugar (pentose) linked through N-glycosidic bond
Nucleoside
194
Sugar can be either
Ribose used in RNA or deoxyribose used in DNA
195
Nucleoside pyrimidine
```
Uracil
Cytosine
Thymine
Uridine
Cytidine
Thymidine
```
196
Nucleoside Purine
Adenine
Guanine
Adenosine
Guanosine
197
A nucleoside with one or more phosphate groups linked to the pentose
Nucleotide
198
Nucleotides containing ribose
Ribonucleotides
199
Nucleotides containing deoxyribose
Deoxyribonucleotides
200
Each nucleotide is named after
The base that it contains
201
The basic energy unit if the cell
ATP
| Adenosine Triphosphate
202
Three phosphates linked by phosphoanhydride bonds that contain large amounts of energy
ATP
203
Building blocks for nucleic acids (DNA or RNA)
Nucleotides
204
Nucleotides are covalently linked by
Phosphodiester bonds in a condensation reaction
| Linked between the phosphate group of the 5 carbon-phosphate and the 3 hydroxyl group
205
A single polynucleotide chain
Ribonucleic acid
Sugar - ribose
Bases - A-U or C-G
206
Usually occurs as a double helix stabilized by hydrogen bonds between bases
Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)
Sugar -deoxyribose
Bases -A-T or C-G
207
Similarities and differences between DNA and RNA
Similarity: polymers of nucleotides, 3' 5' phosphodiester bond linkage, overall negative charged because of the phosphate backbone
Difference: double vs single stranded structure, deoxyribose vs ribose as the sugar, thymidine (DNA) vs uridine (RNA) for the nucleotide
208
Make up the majority of organic molecules in the cell
Macromolecules
209
Each polymer chain grows by:
Addition of a monomer onto one end of the polymer chain via a condensation reaction
210
In all cases, the reactions are catalyzed by specific enzymes for what reason?
To ensure the correct Chemistry
211
Not a type of bond, but rather the exclusion of nonpolar molecules in a polar environment
Hydrophobic interactions
212
Nonpolar amino acid side chains will cluster with each other to avoid exposure to polar water to:
Give proteins their globular shape which forces phospholipid molecules together in cell membranes
