Extra revision 1

Question 1

In the neural retina, what are the 3 kinds of interneurones?

Answer 1

1) Bipolar cells
2) Amacrine cells
3) Horizontal cells

Question 2

What connections do bipolar cells make?

Answer 2

Between one or more photoreceptors and one or more optic tract neurones (ganglion cells) aswell as with horizontal and amacrine cells

Question 3

Describe horizontal cells and the connections they make?

Answer 3

Found at the level of the photoreceptor and bipolar cell.
Have several short processes and one long process
Make connections between adjacent and more distal rods and cones in the outer plexiform layer, can also synapse with the dendrites of bipolar cells

Question 4

Describe amacrine cells and the connections they make?

Answer 4

Located at level of bipolar and ganglion cells
Have numerous dendrites which make connections with bipolar and optic tract neurones in the inner plexiform layer (as well as making occasional connections with photoreceptors in the outer plexiform layer)

Question 5

How do epidermal skin appendages form?

Answer 5

As simple down growths of the epidermis into the layers of mesoderm which will eventually become the dermis and subcutis

Question 6

In which layers are the base of hair follicles located?

Answer 6

In the mid dermis or subcutis

Question 7

What is the function of hair?

Answer 7

Thermoregulation and display

Question 8

What are the 2 forms of sebaceous glands found, which is more common?

Answer 8

1) Associated with hair follicles, develop as lateral protrusions from the hair follicle about 2/3 up, secrete sebum into shaft of hair follicle
2) Some are independent of hair follicles and open up directly onto the skin or mucosal surface
Those associated with hair follicles are the most common

Question 9

Where are eccrine sweat glands located?

Answer 9

Wide spread throughout the skin, located at the junction between the dermis and subcutis, sweat is passed along a duct and deposited on the surface

Question 10

What is the function of eccrine sweat glands?

Answer 10

Thermoregulation - reduce body temp

Question 11

Where are apocrine sweat glands located?

Answer 11

Confined to a few localised areas - mainly in groin and axillary regions, secretory component is in the lower dermis or subcutis
Duct carries the secretion to be secreted in the upper part of the hair follicle above the sebaceous duct

Question 12

What is the function of apocrine sweat glands?

Answer 12

Have no definite function in humans but in animals involved in scent production

Question 13

Which 3 skin appendages are absent from thick skin?

Answer 13

Apocrine sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair follicles

Question 14

What part of the femur do the medial and lateral femoral circumflex arteries wrap around?

Answer 14

The femoral neck

Question 15

How do the obturator nerve and artery pass out of the pelvis?

Answer 15

Via the obturator canal which is a small aperture in the obturator membrane which spans the obturator foramen

Question 16

What 9 structures pass out of the pelvis through the gap between the inguinal ligament and the pelvis?

Answer 16

1) Femoral nerve
2) Femoral artery
3) Femoral vein
4) Lymphatics
5) Femoral branch of genitofemoral nerve
6) Lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh
7) Psoas major
8) Iliacus
9) Pectineus muscles

Question 17

What are the 5 retinacula of the ankle?

Answer 17

1) Flexor retinaculum
2) Superior extensor retinaculum
3) Inferior extensor retinaculum
4) Superior fibular retinaculum
5) Inferior fibula retinaculum

Question 18

Where does the flexor retinaculum extend from and to?

Answer 18

From medial malleolus to inferomedial margin of calcaneus (continuous above with the deep fascia of the leg and below with the deep fascia of the foot (plantar aponeurosis)

Question 19

What passes beneath the flexor retinaculum?

Answer 19

Tendons of tibialis posterior, flexor digitorum profundus, flexor hallucis longus

Question 20

Where does the superior extensor retinaculum extend from and to?

Answer 20

Thickening of deep fascia in the distal leg just superior to the ankle joint, and attached to the anterior borders of the tibia and fibula

Question 21

What passes beneath the superior extensor retinaculum?

Answer 21

Tendons of all muscles of the anterior compartment

Question 22

Where does the inferior extensor retinaculum extend from and to?

Answer 22

Y shaped
Base is attached to the lateral upper calcaneus
Crosses medially over the foot, one arm attaches the medial malleolus and other arm attaches to the medial side of plantar aponeurosis

Question 23

What passes beneath the inferior extensor retinaculum?

Answer 23

Tendons of fibularis tertius and extensor digitorum longus pass under the base
Tendons of tibialis anterior and extensor hallucis longus pass under the 2 arms

Question 24

What does the superior fibular retinaculum pass between?

Answer 24

Between lateral malleolus and calcaneus

Question 25

What does the inferior fibular retinaculum pass between?

Answer 25

Both ends attached to the lateral surface of the calcaneus (blend with fibres of inferior extensor retinaculum above)

Question 26

What passes beneath the fibular retinacula?

Answer 26

The both bind the tendons of fibularis longus and brevis to the lateral sides of the foot

Question 27

In what segments of the spinal cord does a lateral grey horn exist?

Answer 27

T12-L2

S2-S4

Question 28

Grey matter of the spinal cord can be divided into 10 zones known as what, how are the numbered?

Answer 28

Rexed’s laminae

They are numbered sequentially from dorsal to ventral

Question 29

What is the dorsolateral fasiculus or Lissauer’s tract and what is its function?

Answer 29

Vertical running tract located superficially to the tip of the dorsal horn
Afferent fibres entering the dorsal horn divide into ascending and descending branches - they mostly terminate at point of entry but can travel for varying distances in either direction and they do so in these tracts - dorsal root afferents can therefore establish synaptic contacts over several spinal segments

Question 30

In terms of Rexed’s laminae, where do cutaneous afferents and proprioceptive and muscle afferents tend to terminate?

Answer 30

Cutaneous afferents - in superficial dorsal laminae

Muscle and proprioceptive afferents - tend to terminate in deeper laminae

Question 31

What is the substantia gelatinosa?

Answer 31

Tip of the dorsal horn equivalent to Rexed’s laminae 1-3

Receives afferents associated with nociception

Question 32

At thoracic and upper lumbar levels which laminae contains preganglionic sympathetic neurones?

Answer 32

Lateral part of laminae 7

Question 33

In sacral regions which laminae contains preganglionic parasympathetic neurones?

Answer 33

Lateral part of laminae 7

Question 34

What are the 2 main roles of the choroid layer?

Answer 34

1) Pigmented - absorb light

2) Vascular layer

Question 35

What is the blood supply to the choroid layer, pigmented epithelium, photoreceptors and outerplexiform layer of the retina?

Answer 35

Choroid capillary plexus

short and long posterior ciliary arteries from the ophthalmic artery (branch of internal carotid)

Question 36

What is the blood supply to the inner layers of th retina?

Answer 36

Central retinal artery (branch of ophthalmic which enters the optic nerve) which gives rise to 4 main branches, the temporal (superior and inferior) and the macula

Question 37

What is the nerve supply to dilator pupillae muscle?

Answer 37

Sympathetic fibres carried by the nasociliary nerve (branch of V1) via the superior cervical ganglion

Question 38

What is the nerve supply to the ciliary body and the sphincter pupillae muscles?

Answer 38

Parasympathetic fibres via the ciliary ganglion

Pre-synaptic via the occulomotor nerve, post synaptic via the short ciliary nerve (branch of V1)