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a BIO 111 > Final exam review > Flashcards

Final exam review Flashcards

1
Q

2 muscle types:

A

striated

unstriated

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2
Q

muscle types:

striated (types)

A

cardiac

skeletal

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3
Q

muscle types:

unstriated (types)

A

smooth

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4
Q

structure of skeletal muscle (components)

A

fascicles

muscle fibers

myofibrils

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5
Q

structure of skeletal muscle:

fascicles (what are they)

A

bundles of muscle fibers (muscle cells)

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6
Q

structure of skeletal muscle:

muscle fibers (what are they)

A

cells that contain myofibrils

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7
Q

structure of skeletal muscle:

myofibrils (what are they)

A

contain the contractile units of the muscle (sarcomeres)

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8
Q

sarcomeres (what are they)

A

contractile units of the muscle

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9
Q

sarcomere contraction:

myosin filaments (characteristics)

A

thick

motor proteins

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10
Q

sarcomere contraction:

actin filaments (characteristics)

A

thin

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11
Q

sarcomere contraction:

H bands (what are they)

during sarcomere contraction, H bands ___

A

distance b/n actin filaments

shorten/disappear

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12
Q

sarcomere contraction:

I bands (what are they)

during sarcomere contraction, I bands ___

A

distance b/n Z disks and myosin filaments

shorten

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13
Q

during sarcomere contraction:

the distance b/n Z disks ___

A

shortens

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14
Q

sarcomere contraction:

a full contraction ___ muscle length by ___

A

shortens

20%

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15
Q

types of skeletal muscle fibers:

A

slow-twitch

fast-twitch

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16
Q

types of skeletal muscle fibers:

slow-twitch (characteristics)

A

generate full contractions more slowly but are resistant to fatigue

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17
Q

types of skeletal muscle fibers:

fast-twitch (characteristics)

A

generate full contractions quickly but fatigue quickly

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18
Q

types of skeletal muscle fibers:

the % of fast or slow-twitch fibers in any given muscles ___

A

varies

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19
Q

muscle energy generation:

how many ATP supply systems are there?

what are they?

A

3

immediate system

glycolytic system

oxidative system

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20
Q

muscle energy generation:

immediate system (what does it do, how long does it last?)

A

uses existing ATP supplies and ATP regenerated by the enzyme Creatine kinase using phosphocreatine as a phosphate source

lasts 30 seconds

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21
Q

muscle energy generation:

glycolytic system (what does it do, how long does it last?)

A

metabolizes readily available carbohydrates to regenerate ATP

lasts 10-15 minutes

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22
Q

muscle energy generation:

oxidative system (what does it do, how long does it last?)

A

metabolizes stored carbohydrates and fats to generate ATP

lasts until muscle failure

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23
Q

circulatory system:

what are the key components?

A

muscular pump – the heart

circulatory fluid:

  • blood
  • hemolymph

series of conduits – vasculature (vessels)

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24
Q

circulatory system:

blood (what does it contain)

A

red blood cells

hemoglobin

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25
Q

circulatory system:

hemolymph (what does it contain)

A

hemocytes

hemocyanin

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26
Q

categories of circulatory systems:

A

open circulatory system

closed circulatory system

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27
Q

categories of circulatory systems:

open circulatory system (characteristics)

A

circulatory fluid exits the vessels, diffuses thru the tissues, then returns to the heart thru openings called ostia

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28
Q

categories of circulatory systems:

closed circulatory system (characteristics)

A

circulatory fluid never exits the vessels

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29
Q

heart chambers (what are they)

A

atria

ventricles

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30
Q

heart chambers:

atria (what are they)

A

chambers that receive blood and send it to ventricles

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31
Q

heart chambers:

ventricles (what are they)

A

chambers that receive blood from atria and send it either to the lungs or out to the body for circulation

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32
Q

differences in vertebrate hearts:

fish (how many chambers in heart and what are the chambers?)

A

2-chambered heart

1 atrium

1 ventricle

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33
Q

differences in vertebrate hearts:

amphibians and some reptiles (how many chambers in heart and what are the chambers?)

A

3-chambered heart

2 atria

1 ventricle

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34
Q

differences in vertebrate hearts:

mammals and some reptiles (how many chambers in heart and what are the chambers?)

A

4-chambered heart

2 atria

2 ventricles

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35
Q

overview of circulation:

pulmonary circuit:

A

heart –> lungs –> heart

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36
Q

overview of circulation:

systemic circuit:

A

heart –> body –> heart

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37
Q

overview of circulation:

how does blood flow?

A

heart –> arteries –> arterioles –> capillaries –> venules –> veins –> heart

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38
Q

overview of circulation:

arteries and arterioles (what are they and what do they do)

A

arteries (large)

arterioles (small)

carry oxygenated blood from heart to capillaries

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39
Q

overview of circulation:

capillaries (what are they and what do they do)

A

vessels that deliver oxygen/nutrients to the tissues of the body and carry away CO2/other waste products

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40
Q

overview of circulation:

venules and veins (what are they and what do they do)

A

venules (small)

veins (large)

carry deoxygenated blood from capillaries back to the heart

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41
Q

directing blood flow:

precapillary sphincters (PCS) (what are they and what do they do)

A

smooth muscles that regulate blood flow into capillary beds

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42
Q

directing blood flow:

precapillary sphincters (PCS):

contracted PCS (what does it cause)

A

limits blood flow into a capillary bed

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43
Q

directing blood flow:

precapillary sphincters (PCS):

relaxed PCS (what does it cause)

A

increases blood flow into a capillary bed

allows blood to be directed where it’s needed most

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44
Q

___ varies in different vessels

A

blood pressure

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45
Q

blood pressure varies in different vessels:

in order from highest to lowest blood pressure:

A

arteries > arterioles > capillaries > venules > veins

46
Q

how does body prevent back flow of blood b/n muscle contractions?

A

skeletal muscle contractions help push blood thru veins and 1-way veinous valves

47
Q

vascular tissues in plants (what are they)

A

xylem

phloem

48
Q

vascular tissues:

xylem (what does it do)

A

transports water and minerals upward from the roots to the rest of the plant

49
Q

vascular tissues:

phloem (what does it do)

A

transports nutrients from the photosynthetic areas of the plants, as well as signaling molecules, to the rest of the plant

50
Q

tissues of the root:

epidermis (what is it and what does it do)

A

outer layer of cells that form a boundary b/n the plant and the external environment

51
Q

tissues of the root:

root hair (what is it and what does it do)

A

absorbent outgrowths of the epidermis (damage causes transplant shock)

52
Q

tissues of the root:

cortex (what is it and what does it do)

A

cellular layer b/n the epidermis and the endodermis

conducts water and can be used for storage

53
Q

tissues of the root:

endodermis (what is it and what does it do)

A

a water tight inner layer of cells surrounded by the casparian strip

54
Q

tissues of the root:

casparian strip (what is it and what does it do)

A

a waxy coating that surrounds the cells of the endodermis

a water-tight seal

55
Q

tissues of the root:

pericycle (what is it and what does it do)

A

a layer of cells b/n the endodermis and the xylem

structural support, conducts water

56
Q

tissues of the root:

xylem (what is it and what does it do)

A

vascular tissue that transports water and minerals upward to the rest of the plant

57
Q

how water travels to the xylem (2 ways):

A

apoplastic transport

symplastic transport

58
Q

how water travels to the xylem:

apoplastic transport (what occurs)

A

water can travel between root cells

59
Q

how water travels to the xylem:

symplastic transport (what occurs)

A

water can travel through root cells using cell-cell channels called plasmodesmata

60
Q

how water travels to the xylem:

water can travel by ___ or ___ transport through root tissues until it reaches the ___

A

apoplastic or symplastic transport

casparian strip

61
Q

how water travels to the xylem:

because of the ___, water must travel through the cells of the ___

A

casparian strip

endodermis

62
Q

transpiration

A

tension/cohesion model

63
Q

sarcomere contraction

A

sliding filament model of sarcomere contraction

64
Q

purpose of homeostasis:

A

organisms must keep a set of internal conditions w/in their optimal ranges called set points

65
Q

homeostasis (what is it)

A

keeping internal body conditions w/in their set points

66
Q

general mechanism of homeostasis:

1) changes in internal conditions are detected by ___

A

sensors

67
Q

general mechanism of homeostasis:

2) information is sent to ___

A

integrating centers AKA comparators (brain or glands)

68
Q

general mechanism of homeostasis:

3) to maintain set points:

A

comparators signal to effectors

69
Q

general mechanism of homeostasis:

effectors (what are they)

A

organs or tissues that respond to the comparator and act to bring conditions back to the set point

70
Q

general mechanism of homeostasis:

examples of homeostasis

A

thermoregulation by the hypothalamus

pancreas releases insulin to lower blood sugar levels and glucagon to raise blood sugar levels

71
Q

general mechanism of homeostasis:

negative feedback loop (what happens when conditions return to the set point)

A

when conditions return to the set point:

comparator stops signaling
effectors stop responding

72
Q

endocrine system (definition)

A

glands of the body that secrete hormones

73
Q

hormones (definition)

A

signaling molecules released into circulation for organism-wide signaling (endocrine signaling)

74
Q

hormones:

classes:

A

peptide hormones

amino acid hormones

steroid hormones

75
Q

hormones:

classes:

peptide hormones:

  • what are they
  • what do they do
  • examples
A

proteins, non steroidal, hydrophilic

bind to membrane bound receptors

insulin

76
Q

hormones:

classes:

amino acid derivatives:

  • what are they
  • what do they do
  • examples
A

modified signal amino acids, non steroidal, hydrophilic

bind to membrane bound receptors

melatonin (modified tryptophan)

77
Q

hormones:

classes:

steroid hormones:

  • what are they
  • what do they do
  • examples
A

derivatives of cholesterol, hydrophobic

bind to intracellular receptors

testosterone and estrogen

78
Q

proportional response (definition)

A

comparators release hormone amounts that are proportional to how far away conditions are from the set point

79
Q

innate immune system:

characteristics

… line of defense
…pathogens, attacks pathogens….
focus of attack is…
activates…adaptable

A

1st line of defense
blocks entry of pathogens, attacks pathogens that get in
focus of attack is general
activates immediately but is not adaptable

80
Q

innate immune system:

components

A

physical barriers (ex. skin, epithelial cells that cover internal surfaces)

chemical barriers (ex. tears, mucus, stomach acid)

cellular defenses (ex. phagocytes)

81
Q

innate immune system:

cells of the innate immune system:

A

phagocytes (specific type of leukocyte)

phagocytes that have pattern recognition receptors

82
Q

inflammatory response (definition)

A

injured or infected cells release cytokines

83
Q

inflammatory response:

cytokines (what are they)

A

signaling molecules promote an immune response (inflammation)

84
Q

inflammatory response:

hallmark signs of the inflammatory response

A

redness, warmth, swelling (edema), pain

85
Q

adaptive immune system (characteristics)

can…to attack…

…activation time…

response is….

it has…

A

can adapt to attack new (previously unseen) pathogens

slower activation time (days)

response is highly specific

it has a memory

86
Q

adaptive immune system (components)

A

antibodies

B cells

T cells

87
Q

antibodies (definition)

A

proteins of the immune system that stick to the epitopes of antigens

88
Q

epitopes (definition)

A

parts of antigen molecules bound by antibodies

89
Q

non-self antigens (definition)

A

toxins/macromolecules on pathogens

90
Q

self antigens (definition)

A

substances that are supposed to be in the body or macromolecules on the surface of cells of the body

91
Q

antibody structure:

A

tetramer

variable regions of the antibody

constant (invariable) regions of the antibody

92
Q

antibody structure:

tetramer:

A

2 light and 2 heavy chain proteins held together by disulfide bridges

93
Q

antibody structure:

variable regions of the antibody:

A

bind to epitopes

94
Q

antibody structure:

constant (invariable) regions of the antibody:

A

recognized by receptors on phagocytes

95
Q

antibody structure:

antibodies can circulate ___ or be attached to a ___

A

freely

B cell

96
Q

antibody functions:

the binding of antibodies to a ___ marks that pathogen for destruction by ___

A

pathogen

phagocytes

97
Q

antibody functions:

the binding of antibodies to pathogens also blocks pathogens from entering into ___

A

cells and tissues

98
Q

cells of the adaptive immune system:

B cells (what do they do)

A

make antibodies

activate other cells of the immune system

99
Q

cells of the adaptive immune system:

B cells activation (what occurs)

A

increases production/secretion of its antibody

begins cell division (clonal expansion)

activates other cells of the immune system

100
Q

cells of the adaptive immune system:

T cells (what do they do)

A

activate other immune cells

can recognize and kill cells infected with pathogens

101
Q

2 kinds of adaptive immune responses (what are they)

A

primary adaptive immune response

secondary adaptive immune response

102
Q

primary adaptive immune response:

what is it

response time

what about memory B cells

A

the first encounter with a new pathogen

slow response (4-7 days)

memory B cells remain in large numbers after the first infection is over

103
Q

secondary (adaptive) immune response:

what is it

what about its memory B cells

response time

A

the next encounter w/ a pathogen

this time numerous memory B cells are present

response is fast and more effective

104
Q

vaccinations (definition)

A

vaccinations are when antigens from a pathogen are safely introduced into the body (usually by injection)

105
Q

vaccinations:

mode of action:

A

vaccinations cause a primary adaptive immune response –> leads to the production of memory B cells

exposure to the pathogen in nature will cause a secondary immune response –> quickly destroy the pathogen

106
Q

booster vaccination (what does it do)

A

reintroduces antigens to the immune system after immunity has waned

107
Q

immunological tolerance (definition)

A

the immune system does not attack self-antigens

108
Q

negative selection (definition)

A

immune cells that react against self-antigens are killed during development

109
Q

what causes autoimmune disorders?

A

a failure of negative selection would contribute to the development of an autoimmune disorder

110
Q

allergies (what are they)

A

exaggerated immune responses to certain antigens (allergens)

111
Q

evasion of the immune system by pathogens:

A

antigen switching – pathogens change their surface antigens

antigenic drift – thru mutation during replication, viruses can alter the epitopes on their surface antigens

a BIO 111 (32 decks)

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