final review questions

Question 1

resting potential

Answer 1

The inside of the cell membrane is negative compared to the outside.

The resting potential refers to the electrical charge difference across a neuron’s membrane when it is not transmitting a signal. Specifically, the inside of the neuron is negatively charged relative to the outside. This difference is typically around -70 millivolts (mV).

Question 2

Cornea

Answer 2

Protects the eye and bends (focuses) incoming light.

Question 3

Pupil

Answer 3

The hole that lets light in (gets bigger or smaller depending on light).

Question 4

Iris

Answer 4

Colored part of the eye; controls the size of the pupil.

Question 5

Lens

Answer 5

Focuses light onto the retina (can change shape = accommodation).

Question 6

Retina

Answer 6

Lining at the back of the eye that has cells to detect light.

Question 7

Fovea

Answer 7

Central part of the retina; gives sharpest vision (lots of cones here).

Question 8

Optic Nerve

Answer 8

Sends visual info from the eye to the brain.

Question 9

Blind Spot

Answer 9

Spot where the optic nerve leaves the eye—no receptors here.

Question 10

Rods

Answer 10

Photoreceptors for black & white and night vision.

Question 11

Cones

Answer 11

Photoreceptors for color and daylight vision; work best in bright light.

Question 12

Afterimages

Answer 12

opponent-process theory

Afterimages are part of the opponent-process theory of color vision.

Question 13

Depolarization

Answer 13

neuron getting excited to send a message.

A process in which the neuron’s charge becomes less negative (more positive) inside the cell, making it more likely to fire an action potential.

Question 14

REM sleep, generally an “active” state of sleep, is accompanied by which of the following paradoxical characteristics?

Answer 14

The correct answer is: D) Lowered muscle tone

Why this is correct:
REM sleep is known as paradoxical sleep because:

The brain is highly active, similar to when you’re awake (vivid dreams occur).

But your body is in a state of muscle atonia—your voluntary muscles are essentially paralyzed.

This prevents you from acting out your dreams.

Question 15

red-green system.

Answer 15

The most common form of color blindness is related to deficiencies in the

Question 16

Random sampling

Answer 16

larger population to ensure they are representative of that population. While random sampling helps make the sample more

generalizable

Question 17

Random assignment

Answer 17

experimental and control groups)

Question 18

Confounding Variable

Answer 18

Time of day, age
混杂变量是指既影响自变量又影响因变量的无关变量，它可能导致关于两者关系的错误或误导性结论。运动与减肥
研究问题：运动能减肥吗？

自变量：锻炼（参与者是否参与锻炼）

因变量：体重减轻

混杂变量：饮食

解释：如果锻炼的参与者恰好饮食更健康，那么他们的体重减轻可以归因于锻炼和饮食。饮食是一个混杂变量，因为它会影响体重减轻，但在本研究中并未控制饮食。为了分离锻炼对体重减轻的影响，研究人员需要控制饮食。

Question 19

In vision, transduction occurs within

Answer 19

retina

In the case of vision, light waves enter the eye and are eventually converted into electrical signals by photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) located in the retina.

Question 20

circadian rhythm

Answer 20

A cycle of biological functioning that lasts about 25 hours

Question 21

somatosensory cortex.

Answer 21

The more sensitive the body part, the larger the area of the somatosensory cortex.

The size of the area of the somatosensory cortex that is associated with a particular body part corresponds with how sensitive that body part is. The more sensitive the body part, the larger the area of the somatosensory cortex that is dedicated to it.

Question 22

The thalamus processes information for all of the following senses EXCEPT

Answer 22

smell

Question 23

This is a normal distribution question. You’re given:

Mean = 50

Standard deviation (SD) = 8

Mary’s score = 59

Step 1: Calculate the z-score

(59-50)/8 =1.125

You have 1.125, then you go to the distribution graph. Since is below then you add all the percent below 1

remember the graph(normal distribution)

Question 24

On a multiple intelligences test, the mean score for a class of 100 students is 80 and the standard deviation of the scores is 10. The professor who gave the test then realizes that she made a scoring error, which she corrects by adding 5 points to each student’s score. The standard deviation of the students’ new scores is

5,10,10.5,15

Answer 24

10

because everone is adding a 5 point , nothing is changing

Question 25

Cognitive psychologists

Answer 25

Perception Memory Language Thinking Problem solving Decision making Learning and knowledge acquisition

Question 26

Social desirability bias

Answer 26

Social Desirability Bias: Overreporting positive behaviors (e.g., being healthy, kind, or tolerant) Underreporting negative behaviors (e.g., prejudice, drug use, or aggression) A type of response bias. Occurs when people respond in a way that makes them look good rather than truthfully. Common in self-report surveys, especially on sensitive topics (e.g., racism, drug use, sexual behavior, income, etc.).

Question 27

latent learning

Answer 27

Latent learning refers to learning that occurs without reinforcement but only becomes evident when there is motivation to demonstrate it. without reinforcement 是指一个人在最初无意识的情况下学到了一些东西，并且不会立即展现出来。只有在需要运用时，学习才会显现出来。 潜在学习是指无需强化即可发生的学习，但只有在有动机的情况下才会显现出来。在实验中，第二组老鼠即使没有奖励也

Question 28

Andi’s best friend always screamed when she was in high places, and now Andi also screams when she is in high places. Which of the following theorists would say that Andi screams because she saw her friend scream? Albert Bandura Bandura’s theory of observational learning explains that Andi screamed because she mimicked her friend.

Question 29

C. Charles Spearman – Known for theories of intelligence (e.g., g factor), not behavior modeling.

Question 30

D. Carl Rogers – Humanistic psychologist focused on self-concept and unconditional positive regard, not observational learning.

Question 31

A child’s sex is genetically determined by the father

Question 32

Phoneme

Answer 32

The smallest unit of sound in a language, which distinguishes words but has no meaning on its own.

Question 33

Morpheme

Answer 33

The smallest unit of meaning in a language. It cannot be broken down into smaller meaningful parts.

Question 34

operational definition

Answer 34

C. To ensure that the study can be accurately replicated An operational definition is a precise, measurable description of how a variable is defined and assessed in a study. For example, defining "stress" as "the score on a 10-item questionnaire assessing perceived stress over the past week."

Question 35

Tardive dyskinesia schizophrenia

Question 36

serotonin Major depressive SRRI

Question 37

Operant conditioning Operant conditioning, developed by B.F. Skinner, involves learning through consequences — specifically reinforcements and punishments to increase or decrease behavior.

Question 38

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) 电休克疗法（ECT） Major depressive 是一种精神病治疗方法，使用短暂的电刺激来诱发大脑控制性癫痫。 它主要用于治疗严重抑郁症和其他情绪障碍

Question 39

rational-emotive therapy Identify and challenge irrational beliefs and self-defeating thoughts Replace them with more rational, adaptive thoughts Help clients take control of their emotional responses and behaviors

Question 40

Which therapeutic technique has its origins in the humanistic perspective? Unconditional positive regard Unconditional positive regard is a technique employed in person-centered therapy, which falls under the humanistic perspective.

Question 41

Cognitive-behavioral therapy depression Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is a widely used and effective treatment for depression. It focuses on: Identifying and challenging negative thought patterns (like believing one is unworthy or incapable of forming relationships) Improving behavior and social skills to promote more positive interactions and self-perception

Question 42

free association Psychodynamic

Question 43

Electroconvulsive therapy ECT assumes that mental disorders have a biological basis, such as chemical imbalances or neural dysfunction, and seeks to treat them through biological intervention. biological cause

Question 44

Beneficence 意味着以客户的最佳利益为出发点，促进他们的福祉。虽然仁慈是一条重要的道德原则

Question 45

Nonmaleficence 不伤害的意思是“不造成伤害”。虽然违反保密规定可能会损害客户利益，但该术语本身含义更广，指的是避免所有类型的伤害

Question 46

Placebo effect improvement due to expectation

Question 47

Rational-emotive behavior therapy Cognitive psychologists

Question 48

The psychodynamic perspective proposes that dream analysis is a useful device for which of the following? gaining insight into unconscious motives

Question 49

A therapist using systematic desensitization to help a client overcome a fear of big dogs would probably begin treatment by d, master a set of relaxation techniques a, asking the client to free-associate to the word “ dog” free-associate to the word “ dog” b, walk into a room where there is a small dog walk into a room where there is a small dog c, Describe her past experience with dogs describe her past experience with dogs d, master a set of relaxation techniques

Question 50

Biofeedback Biofeedback is a technique that trains individuals to gain control over involuntary physiological functions, such as: Blood pressure Heart rate Muscle tension Skin temperature Brain wave activity

Question 51

avoid potential confounding variables Randomly assigned which patients received the medication and which patients received the placebo

Question 52

Hallucinations These are false sensory perceptions that occur without any external stimulus. Example: Hearing voices when no one is speaking (auditory hallucination)

Question 53

Dissociative fugu Dissociative fugue is a rare and extreme subtype of dissociative amnesia, characterized by: Sudden, unexpected travel away from home or work. Inability to recall one’s past or identity. Possible assumption of a new identity (e.g., new name, job). Often occurs after trauma or extreme stress.

Question 54

: Delusions: ❌ Delusions are false beliefs, not false perceptions. Example: Believing you are a famous historical figure or that others are plotting against you.

Question 55

Anorexia nervosa: 他们通常专注于控制食物摄入量并达到极致瘦身。 害怕体重增加和对身体形象的扭曲认知是主要特征。 too skinny Bulimia nervosa: 重点是暴饮暴食事件，随后采取清除行为以防止体重增加，而不是极度关注饥饿或减肥。 nornal weight

Question 56

Which of the following is a characteristic common to all individuals with a narcissistic personality disorder? Answer: An unwarranted sense of self-importance A domineering attitude toward others A domineering attitude toward others - no response given An unwarranted sense of self-importance An unwarranted sense of self-importance - correct B Restricted ability to express warmth and affection Restricted ability to express warmth and affection - no response given C Oversensitivity to rejection or possible humiliation

Question 57

cognitive appraisal 首先发生生理唤醒（由药物引起）。 然后，个体从认知角度解释（评估）背景来标记情绪。

Question 58

Obsessions Obsessions are persistent, intrusive, and unwanted thoughts, urges, or images that cause significant anxiety or distress. These are a key symptom of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD).

Question 59

Compulsions – These are behaviors, not thoughts.

Question 60

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) Generalized anxiety

Question 61

compliance 顺从指的是由于另一个人或团体的直接要求而导致的行为改变，即使个人内心并不一定同意该要求。

Question 62

Projective tests 潜意识的想法、感受和欲望 它基于这样的理念：当人们面对模糊的刺激时，他们会将自己的内心体验投射到刺激上。 involve participants responding to ambiguous stimuli, which are supposed to reflect their internal dynamics. Assessments that ask participants to complete sentences, identify pictures in inkblots, or tell the story behind a photograph are all examples of which of the following types of tests?

Question 63

The psychoanalytic concept of repression suggests a difficulty in the functioning of which aspect of memory? Retrieval

Question 64

Which of the following is a partial reinforcement schedule that is most resistant to extinction? Variable ratio

Question 65

Negative reinforcement 当某种行为由于消除或减少不愉快的刺激而得到强化时，就会发生负强化。 行为：服用止痛药 不愉快的刺激：牙痛 结果：疼痛消失 由于疼痛消除了，患者将来在感到疼痛时更有可能再次服用止痛药。 ➡️ 这是负强化——去除一些不好的东西来增加行为。

Question 66

factor analysis a statistical method used to identify underlying factors or dimensions that explain the relationships between a set of observed variables. 一种统计方法，用于识别解释一组观察变量之间关系的潜在因素或维度。

Question 67

Incentive 激励

Question 68

Short route (low road): Thalamus → Amygdala Fast, automatic, and does not involve conscious thinking. Triggers immediate emotional responses — especially fear — before the brain fully processes the situation. Long route (high road): Thalamus → Sensory Cortex → Amygdala Slower and involves conscious processing. Allows for more accurate interpretation of stimuli.

Question 69

Factor analysis In intelligence research

Question 70

Reciprocal determinism 述个人行为、个人因素（认知、信仰、情感）和环境之间的相互作用，其中每个因素都会影响其他因素，也会受到其他因素的影响

Question 71

self-efficacy 个人对自己在特定情况或任务中取得成功的能力的信念

Question 72

self-actualization 充分发挥个人潜力并成为最好的自己的过程

Question 73

According to the five-factor model of personality, which of the following is true? Most personality traits can be derived from the five major traits of the theory.

Question 74

Random Sampling-> Generalizability (external validity)->Controls for Confounding?❌ No Random Assignment ->Equal groups (internal validity) ->Controls for Confounding? ✅ Yes

Question 75

Phonological loop 它负责保存并复习语音信息，防止其衰减。 语音循环是工作记忆的一个组成部分，负责存储和处理听觉信息。

Question 76

MRI 一种非侵入性诊断技术，利用强磁脉冲和无线电波创建大脑结构的详细 3D 图像

Question 77

Temporal Lobes Generally control auditory and linguistic(语言，说话) processing 右颞叶： 在识别面部和视觉记忆 左颞叶： 理解口语和书面语言。此处受损会导致失语症等语言障碍。

Question 78

Parietal Lobes。 ↳ process and organize information 处理感觉信息的区域，特别是触觉、温度、疼痛和本体感觉（身体位置感）

Question 79

The Pons Helps coordinate automatic movement (面部的) Brain Stem Regulates sleep-wake cycle & arousal

Question 80

The pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus

Question 81

Action Potential a 电 events that begin when a neuron reaches the threshold. 当神经元达到阈值时开始的电事件。

Question 82

Sodium-Potassium Pump Sodium-Potassium Pump: Channel that regulates the charge for resting state

Question 83

🔹 Absolute Threshold 📘 Definition: The minimum amount of stimulation needed for a person to detect a stimulus 50% of the time. ✅ Example: The faintest sound you can hear in a quiet room. The smallest amount of light you can see in a completely dark room. 👩‍🔬 Key idea: "Can you detect anything at all?" 🔹 Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference or JND) 📘 Definition: The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli that a person can detect 50% of the time. This is also known as the Just Noticeable Difference (JND). ✅ Example: Noticing when the volume on your phone increases from level 5 to 6. Detecting the difference between two weights, like knowing when one bag is just a little heavier than the other.

Question 84

Elaborative Rehearsal a Deeply processing information by associating it with meaning → helps transfer it to LTM. EX: Connecting new information to what you already know

Question 85

Metacognition a Awareness and understanding of your own memory processes Example: Quizzing yourself → reflecting on what you do/not know

Question 86

Constructive Memory a Memories are not perfect recordings Can be influenced by imagination ↳ leading to altered or false memories

Question 87

Activation-Synthesis Theory a REM activates random neurons → Cortex tries to make sense Dreams are random brain activity synthesized into coherent stories

Question 88

Normative changing behavior to gain approval or avoid rejection (peer pressure) Informational adopting others’ behaviors or beliefs because we assume they know better (expert influence)

Question 88

Executive Functions Higher-level cognitive processes include planning, organizing, and critical thinking ↳ Essential for carrying out goal-directed behaviors

Question 89

Priming 无意识地激活记忆中的某些联想，它可以在无意识的情况下影响思想、感知和行为。 例如：约会应用程序的red flag，可能会导致过度分析并导致错误的结果。 如果一个人间接接触到与智力相关的词语（例如“天才”或“聪明”），他们可能会因为积极的启动效应在智力测试中表现得更好。 另一方面，如果接触到负面的刻板印象，他们可能会因为刻板印象威胁（一种启动形式）而表现不佳。

Question 90

Elaboration Likelihood Model a explains how attitudes are formed and changed two distinct routes for information processing a central route a peripheral route

Question 91

Group Think 对和谐/一致的渴望超越了逻辑决策 ↳ rather than defend own ideas, just go along with group ↳ bad group decisions

Question 92

OVERjustification effect extrinsic reward can decrease interest in intrinsic motivated behavior/task 当外部奖励（如金钱、奖品或成绩）降低一个人完成以前喜欢完成的任务的内在动力时，就会出现过度理由效应。

Question 93

Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory Internal conflict: when a choice is required between motivations or actions that are incompatible 内部冲突：需要在互不相容的动机或行动之间做出选择 Approach-Approach Conflict(Win-Win Situation) Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict (Lose-Lose Situation) Approach-Avoidance Conflict (Mixed Feelings About One Choice)

Question 94

The Lateral Hypothalamus (LH) 下丘脑外侧部 (LH) a 功能：它被认为是“饥饿中心”。 激活时：它会引发饥饿感并促使进食行为。 损伤：如果下丘脑外侧受损，会引起饥饿感缺乏，从而导致体重减轻，进食减少。 5 23 q The Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH) 腹内侧下丘脑 (VMH) a 功能：它被认为是“饱腹中枢”（感觉饱的中心）。 激活时：它会向身体发出停止进食的信号，并引发饱腹感或饱腹感。 损伤：如果腹内侧下丘脑受损，就会导致暴饮暴食和体重增加，因为人不再接收到饱腹的信号。

Question 95

Social coaction a Social settings increase eating behaviors (family dinners, parties) 认为其他人的存在可以增强或阻碍一个人完成任务的能力 一个人的行为或表现如何受到同时执行相同或类似任务的其他人的影响。

Question 96

Sequential Theories a 情绪是大脑如何解读我们对刺激的身体反应 Person sees a spider - Begins to shake - Interprets shaking as fear “I am shaking. I am afraid” 5 27 q Simultaneous Theories a 同步理论是指动机或行为理论，提出不同的因素或过程同时起作用来解释某一现象。这些理论表明，各种因素可能同时影响行为、情绪或认知，而不仅仅是一个因素推动结果。 “The spider makes me shake and feel afraid at the same time” 这两个因素同时起作用 工作表现： 一个人可能会对一个重要的演讲感到紧张（一种情绪），同时又在思考如何成功完成任务（一种认知过程）。这两个因素同时起作用，影响他们在演讲中的表现。 动机： 学生可能会对即将到来的考试感到焦虑（情绪），同时还要做好心理准备和学习（认知）。情绪和认知的共同影响决定了学生参加考试的积极性和准备程度。

Question 97

Nonmaleficence: Do no harm Fidelity and Responsibility(): Be trustworthy and professional Integrity:（no lie） Promote accuracy and honesty Confidentiality(保密性) An ethical standard that psychologists must not share client information without consent, except in legally required cases.

Question 98

Action Potential a 电 events that begin when a neuron reaches the threshold. 当神经元达到阈值时开始的电事件。 5 44 q Resting Potential a the neuron is waiting for depolarization 神经元正在等待去极化