Final Test Flashcards
(263 cards)
1
Q
what are the structures of the urinary system?
A
- Kidneys (2)
- Ureters (2)
- Bladder
- Urethra
2
Q
are the kidneys retro or intra?
A
retro
3
Q
where are the kidneys compared to the spine?
A
between T12 and L3
4
Q
which kidney is lower than the other?
A
right because left is being pushed down by liver
5
Q
which kidney is usually larger?
A
left
6
Q
what is renal fasciae?
A
anchor kidneys to surrounding structures
7
Q
what is renal fat pad?
A
cushion of fat surrounding each kidney
8
Q
what is the hilum of the kidney?
A
a concave notch in an organ where vessels and other structures enter
9
Q
Renal Cortex/Renal Medulla
A
Outer/Inner portion
10
Q
Renal Pyramids
A
Triangular divisions of medulla
11
Q
Renal Papilla
A
Narrow, innermost end of a pyramid; release urine through multiple ducts
12
Q
Renal columns
A
Where cortical tissue dips into medulla between pyraminds
13
Q
Calyces (major & minor)
A
Cuplike structure; collects urine from renal papilla; minor calyces flow into major calyces
14
Q
Renal Pelvis
A
Expansion of upper end of ureter
15
Q
what is the rate of blood flowing through the kidney?
A
1200ml/min
16
Q
how much of blood is flowing to the kidney from the heart?
A
20%
17
Q
are kidneys high vascular organs?
A
yes
18
Q
renal arteries branch into what before entering the kidney?
A
segmental arteries
19
Q
segmental arteries branch into what?
A
lobar arteries
20
Q
lobar arteries branch into what? (extend towards cortex)
A
interlobar arteries
21
Q
_____________ extend out towards the renal cortex then arch around the base of the renal pyramids to form the _________
A
interlobar arteries extend out towards the renal cortex then arch around the base of the renal pyramids to form the arcuate arteries
22
Q
arcuate arteries branch into what which penetrate cortex?
A
interlobular arteries (aka cortical radiate arteries)
23
Q
what carries blood to the nephrons?
A
afferent arterioles (branches of the interlobular arteries)
24
Q
Nephrons are the ____________ units of the kidneys
A
microscopic functional
25
how long are the ureters?
aprox 30 cm
26
where do the ureters coarse?
Run from renal pelvis inside kidneys enters obliquely at bottom of bladder (trigone)
27
what are the 3 layers of the ureters?
- mucous lining
- muscular wall (peristalsis)
- fibrous outer layer
28
where is the urinary bladder?
behind pubis symphysis; in front of rectum
29
what is the wall of the urinary bladder made out of?
Wall made mostly of smooth muscle, with fibres running in all directions
30
rugae
bladder is lined with a mucus membrane that forms folds when bladder is empty
31
Trigone
a triangular shaped area at the floor of the bladder,
32
what are the 3 points in the trigone?
2 from the ureters entering, and 1 from the urethra exiting
33
where is the location of the urinary bladder in women?
anterior to uterus
34
where is the location of the urinary bladder in male?
rest on prostate
35
what is the function of the bladder?
- Reservoir for urine before it leaves the body
| - Aided by the urethra, it expels urine from the body
36
urinary meatus
A narrow tube that runs from the floor of the bladder (trigone area)
37
what kind of lining does the urethra have?
mucous membrane lining
38
where is the urethra in females?
posterior to pubis symphysis; anterior to vagina
39
where is the urethra in males?
passes through prostate gland
40
how long is the urethra in females?
3cm
41
how long is the urethra in males?
20 cm
42
what is micturition?
urination or voiding
43
what are the steps to the regulatory sphincters becoming activated?
1. bladder volume increases
2. activates stretch receptors in bladder wall
3. parasympathetic reflex initiated
4. bladder wall contracts
5. regulatory sphincters activated
44
which sphincter of the bladder is involuntary?
Internal urethral sphincter
45
which bladder sphincter is voluntary?
External urethral sphincter
46
what volume does urination typically occur?
300-400 mL
47
how much urine can the adult bladder usually hold?
500-1000 mL
48
Urinary retention
Urine produced in kidneys but not voided from bladder (stone in bladder)
49
Urinary suppression
No urine produced in kidneys but bladder is normal
50
Incontinence
Urine voided involuntarily
51
when may Incontinence occur?
May be caused by spinal injury, stroke or age-related
52
can Incontinence be treated?
to some degree
53
what can retention of urine cause?
cystitis (bladder infection)
54
describe cystitis
bladder infection
- amounts voided are small
- extreme urgency, frequency
- pain on urination is common
55
describe Interstitial cystitis
Overactive bladder
- not due to infection
- extreme urgency, frequency
- amounts voided are small
- can be treated to some degree
56
what is a nephron?
basic structural & functional unit of kidneys
57
_______ + ______ = nephron
renal tubule + renal corpuscle
58
what is the function of the nephron?
filters blood
59
what are the 2 main parts of the nephron?
- renal corpuscle
| - renal tubule
60
what is the first part of a nephron?
renal corpuscle
61
Bowman's Capsule
- cup shaped 'mouth' of nephron
| - surrounds glomerulus
62
describe Glomerulus
- Network of very fine blood capillaries
- Diameter of shorter afferent arteriole > diameter of longer efferent arteriole
- required to filter wastes from blood
63
is the BP in glomerular capillaries high or low?
high
64
what is the epithelium made of in the renal tubule?
Winding, hollow tube with walls made primarily of simple cuboidal & simple squamous epithelium
65
where does the renal tubule run?
renal corpuscle and collecting tubule
66
what regulated tubule function and growth in the renal tubule?
cilia on epithelial cells
67
what equals the renal tubule (equation)
collecting tubule + distal convoluted tubule + loop of Henle + proximal convoluted tubule = renal tubule
68
Proximal convoluted tubule
First segment off of Bowman’s capsule; ‘twisty’ tube
69
Henle loop
Thin descending limb with a hairpin turn, then an ascending limb. Length affects concentration of urine
70
Distal convoluted tubule
Last segment, ‘twisty’ tube; contacts juxtaglomerular apparatus; joins to the collecting tubule
71
Collecting tubule
Straight extension of the renal tubules of several nephrons-minor calyx
72
where is the Juxtaglomerular apparatus?
where the afferent arteriole and distal convolutes tubule paths meet
73
renin
to maintaining blood flow by secreting this hormone when blood pressure (BP) drops in the afferent arteriole
74
what does renin cause?
vasoconstriction = increases BP
75
where is the renal corpuscle located?
cortex
76
where is the convoluted tubule located?
cortex
77
where is the distal convoluted tubule located?
cortex
78
where is the loop of Henle located?
medulla
79
where is the collecting tubule located?
medulla
80
what arteriole enters glomerular capillary network?
afferent arteriole
81
__________exits glomerular capillary network and extends to _____________
Efferent arteriole exits glomerular capillary network and extends to peritubular capillary blood supply
82
vasa recta
straight arterioles that run along side loop of Henle
83
peritubular capillaries
surround rest of renal tubule
84
what is the flow of urine from a nephron?
- collecting tubules
- pyramids
- calyx
- renal pelvis
- ureter
- bladder
- urethra
85
urine formation is essential for?
homeostasis and life
86
what does kidney failure result in?
dialysis
87
are kidneys vital organs?
yes
88
what is eliminated by urine?
Clean metabolic waste products from the blood; toxins and nitrogenous wastes (e.g. ammonia, urea)
89
what are the functions of the kidneys?
- eliminates waste
- Regulate fluid/water & electrolyte levels (e.g. sodium, potassium, chloride)
- Stabilize pH (acid/alkaline balance)
- Regulate levels of many chemicals in blood
90
erythropoietin stimulates what?
Production & maturation of RBC in the bone marrow
91
what does Chronic kidney problems often result in?
anemia
92
what is the 3 step process of the formation of urine?
1. filtration
2. reabsorption
3. secretion
93
where does filtration occur?
continually happens in the renal corpuscle
94
BP from blood flowing through glomerulus pushes/filters _____ & __________(filtrate) into BC
BP from blood flowing through glomerulus pushes/filters H20 & dissolved substances (filtrate) into BC
95
what affects filtration?
blood pressure
96
what is the normal glomerular filtration rate?
125 mL/min
97
reabsorption
movement of substances out of filtrate/urine into blood
98
what is the direction of reabsorption?
renal tubules to peritubular capillaries
99
what is reabsorbed through active and passive transport mechanisms?
H20, glucose, amino acids, urea Na+, Cl-, and other ions
100
where does reabsorption happen most often?
proximal convoluted tubule, but continues in all renal tubules
101
where is water absorbed from the 180 L/day?
proximal tubules
102
what is secretion?
opposite of reabsorption
| -Movement of substances from blood in peritubular capillaries-urine forming in distal & collecting tubules
103
what is secreted via active transport?
H+ and K+
104
how is ammonia secreted?
diffusion
105
what is critical to pH balance?
secretion of H+
106
what does the regulation of urine volume DEPEND on?
Depends on amount of water & dissolved substances (salt) reabsorbed by convoluted tubules
107
what is the regulation of urine volume INFLUENCED by?
- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
- Aldosterone
- Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH)
108
what is ADH produced by?
hypothalmus
109
what is ADH secreted by?
posterior pituitary
110
what does ADH influence?
water reabsorption
111
what does ADH reduce?
water loss (decreases urine)
112
what is aldosterone secreted by?
adrenal cortex
113
does ADH increase or decrease urine volume?
decrease urine volume
114
does aldosterone increase or decrease urine volume?
decrease urine volume
115
what is the salt and H2O retaining hormone?
aldosterone
116
what does ANH stand for?
atrial natriuretic hormone
117
where is ANH secreted from?
atrial wall
118
does ANH increase or decrease urine volume?
increase urine volume
119
what is the salt and H2O losing hormone?
ANH
120
which 2 hormones have opposite effects?
aldosterone and ANH
121
what are the dissolved substances in urine?
- Nitrogenous wastes
- Electrolytes (e.g. Na+, K+, Cl-)
- Toxins
- Pigments
- Hormones
- Other (‘abnormal’, e.g. blood, glucose, albumin, sediment/stones)
122
how much urine is excreted per day?
1-2 litres
123
what is the colour and clarity of urine?
amber yellow, clear (not cloudy)
124
what is the average pH of urine?
average 6 (can change with diet)
125
what is specific gravity?
A measurement of all chemical particles in the urine
126
Anuria
absence of urine
127
Oliguria
scanty amounts of urine
128
Polyuria
unusually large amounts of urine
129
what are the male reproductive organs classified as?
- essential organs (produce gametes)
| - accessory organs (support reproductive process)
130
what are essential organs in male reproduction organs?
male gonads (testes)
131
what are the reproductive ducts in the make reproductive system?
- epididymis,
- vas deferens
- ejaculatory duct
- urethra
132
what are the accessory glands in the male reproductive system?
- seminal vesicles
- bulbourethral glands
- prostate
133
what are the supporting structures of the male reproductive system?
- scrotum
- penis
- spermatic cords
134
what is the perineum?
diamond-shaped area between thighs
135
where does the perineum extend?
anteriorly from pubic symphysis to coccyx posteriorly, lateral boundary is the ischial tuberosity on either side
136
what is the perineum divided into?
urogenital triangle and the anal triangle
137
how big are the testes?
4-5cm in lenth
138
what is the testes located in?
supporting sacs called scrotum by scrotal tissue and spermatic cords
139
what is each teste encased by?
tunica albuginea – a dense, white fibrous ‘capsule’
140
how many lobules do the tunica albuginea divide into?
200 or more
141
what does each lobule in the testes contain?
interstitial cells (Leydig cells), as well as one to three seminiferous tubules
142
what is the path of sperm just in testes?
- Seminferous tubules
- rete testis
- efferent ductules
- head of epididymis
143
testes consist of:
- Seminiferous tubules
- Interstitial (Leydig) cells:
- Spermatogenic cells
- Sustentacular/nurse/Sertoli cells
144
Interstitial (Leydig) cells
endocrine cells between the seminiferous tubules
145
Spermatogenic cells
:produce sperm
146
Sustentacular/nurse/Sertoli cells
support & regulate sperm-producing functions of the testes
147
what are the 2 primary functions of the testes?
- Spermatogenesis
| - Secretion of hormones by interstitial cells
148
Spermatogenesis
The formation of mature male gametes (spermatozoa) by the seminiferous tubules; stimulated by FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) from the anterior pituitary (and also GnRH/LH)
149
what hormones are secreted by interstitial cells?
- testosterone
- inhibin
- estrogen
150
testosterone is __________
is the major androgen and steroid hormone
151
what is testosterone produced by?
interstitial cells
152
what is testosterone regulated by?
LH (luteinizing hormone) from anterior pituitary gland
153
what is the function of testosterone?
most importantly promoting development/maintenance of accessory organs, and primary and secondary male sexual characteristics
154
Inhibin
inhibits release of FSH by anterior pituitary gland, thus allowing the testis to have some control over spermatogenesis
155
Estrogen
small amounts secreted by interstitial cells, liver, and other organs; role in males uncertain but may influence sperm
156
what is the structure if spermatozoa?
consist of a head, neck, midpiece, and tail
157
what is the head of the spermatozoa covered by?
by acrosome or acrosomal cap
158
what is the function of spermatozoa?
sperm nucleus unites with egg nucleus to form first cell of new offspring
159
where does capacitation occur?
in the vagina
160
what is capacitation?
Acrosome releases acrosomal enzymes that digest the barrier around ovum and promotes sperm motility
161
where is the epididymis located?
along top and side of each testis
162
what are the anatomical divisions of the epididymis?
head, body, and tail
163
what are the functions of the epididymis?
- Duct for seminal fluid (semen)
- Secretes small part of semen
- Sperm become capable of motility while they are passing through the epididymis
- Maturation area for sperm; which spend 1-3 weeks in the epididymis
164
what is the vas deferens?
Thick muscular walled tube that extends from the epididymis tail
165
where does the vas deferens coarse?
Ascends from scrotum, goes through inguinal canal (as part of the spermatic cord), into abdominal cavity where it then extends over the top and down the posterior surface of the bladder
166
what is the ampulla?
Enlarged terminal portion joins duct of seminal vesicle
167
what are the functions of the vas deferens?
- One of the excretory ducts for semen
- Connects epididymis with ejaculatory duct
- Can acts as a storage area for sperm
- Is the duct that is severed in a vasectomy
168
how long can sperm remain in the vas deferens with no loss of fertility?
over a month
169
what are the ejaculatory ducts formed by?
vas deferens and duct from seminal vesicle
170
what does the ejaculatory duct pass through?
prostate gland
171
what serves as a dual function?
urethra
172
where are the seminal vesicles?
posterior surface of bladder
173
what is the function of seminal vesicles?
secrete the alkaline, viscous, nutrient-rich part of semen
174
what structure is doughnut shaped?
prostate gland
175
what is the function of the prostate gland?
Adds slightly acidic, watery, milky-looking secretion to seminal fluid
176
where does 60% of semen volume come from?
seminal vesicles
177
where does 30 % of semen volume come from?
prostate gland
178
what is the structure of the Bulbourethral glands?
Small, pea-shaped structures with ducts leading into urethra
179
where are the Bulbourethral glands?
Lie below prostate gland
180
what is the function of the Bulbourethral glands?
Secrete alkaline fluid that is part of semen
181
what is the scrotum?
Skin-covered pouch suspended from perineal region into which the testes descend near the time of birth
182
what is the scrotum separated by?
septum
183
what does the scrotum contain?
- testis
- epididymis
- lower part of a spermatic cord
184
cremaster muscles
elevate the scrotal pouch if necessary
185
what is the function of the scrotum?
ensure testes are maintained at a slightly lower temperature than normal body temperature
186
what is the structure of the penis?
Composed of three cylindrical masses of erectile tissue, one of which contains the urethra
187
what are the functions of the penis?
- contains the urethra (dual tract for urinary and reproductive system)
- copulatory organ during sexual intercourse
188
what are the spermatic cords?
- Fibrous cylinders located in inguinal canals
| - Enclose seminal ducts, blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves
189
how much of the seminal fluid comes from the epididymis?
5%
190
how much of the seminal fluid comes from the seminal vesicles?
60%
191
how much of the seminal fluid comes from the prostate?
30%
192
how much of the seminal fluid comes from the bulbourethral glands?
5%
193
where does the seminal fluid pass through?
Passes from testes through epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, and urethra
194
what stimulates the final stages of development?
high levels of hormones
195
gradual decline in hormone production may decrease ___________
sexual appetite and fertility
196
what is the function of the female reproductive system?
- To produce offspring and thereby ensure continuity of the genetic code
- To produce eggs, or female gametes, each of which has the potential to unite with a male gamete to form the first cell of an offspring
- To provide nutrition and protection to the offspring for up to several years after conception
197
what are the essential organs?
gonads (ovaries)
198
what are the accessory organs?
- ducts from the ovaries
| - external genitals (vulva)
199
what are the additional sex glands?
mammary glands
200
what is the perineum?
Skin-covered region between the vaginal orifice and the rectum
201
what area may be torn during child birth?
perineum
202
where are the nodular glands located?
located on each side of the uterus, below & behind the uterine tubes
203
ectopic pregnancy
development of the fetus in a place other than the uterus
204
what is the surface of the ovaries covered by?
germinal epithelium
205
Oogenesis
process that results in formation of a mature egg
206
Ovaries are ___________ organs that secrete the female sex hormones
endocrine
207
prolapsed uterus
Weakening of the supporting ligaments of the uterus allows the uterus to tilt backward and ‘slide down’ the vagina
208
what layer is there rich blood supply in the uterus?
endometrium
209
which layer of the uterus is thick?
myometrium
210
what does the perimetrium cover?
only part of the uterine body, doesn't cover the cervix
211
what do the uterine tubes consist of?
mucous
smooth muscle
serous lining
212
what may become infected with organisms introduced into the vagina?
tubal mucosa because it is continuous with the vagina
213
what may inflammation of uterine tubes lead to?
scarring and partial or complete closure of lumen
214
where is the site of fertilization?
uterine tubes
215
is the vagina collapsible?
yes
216
what is the vagina composed of?
- smooth muscle
- lined with mucous membrane
- arranged in rugae
217
hymen
a mucous membrane that typically forms a border around the vagina in young premenstrual girls
218
what is the function of the vagina?
- lining lubricates and stimulates the penis during sexual intercourse
- acts as a receptacle for semen
- is the lower portion of the birth canal
- transports tissue and blood shed during menstruation to the exterior
219
what are the female external genitals?
- mons pubis
- labia majora
- labia minora
- clitoris
- urinary meatus
- vaginal orifice
- greater vestibular glands
220
what does the mons pubis protect?
clitoris
| vestibule
221
what does the clitoris do?
sensory receptors that send information to the sexual response area of the brain
222
Urinary meatus
external opening of urethra
223
what is the boundary between the internal and external genitals?
vaginal orifice
224
what secretes mucous to lubricate the vagina?
greater vestibular glands (Bartholin glands)
225
what are the cycles of the female reproductive cycle?
- ovarian cycle
- endometrial/menstrual cycle (divided into 4 phases)
- myometrial cycle
- gonadotropic cycle
226
what are the 4 phases of the endometrial or menstrual cycle?
- menses
- postmenstrual phase
- ovulation
- premenstrual phase
227
what do stem cells do before baby girls are born?
stem cells in ovarian tissue called oogonia undergo meiosis
228
at birth, what does ovaries contain?
oocytes
229
At the beginning of menstruation each month, several of the oocytes resume __________
meiosis
230
when does meiosis stop again?
just before the oocyte is released during ovulation and will only resume and be completed if the egg is fertilized
231
what are the 2 primary functions of the ovarian cycle?
- produce ova at regular intervals
| - regulate the endometrial cycle through estrogen and progesterone
232
what are the days if menses?
days 1-5
233
what kayers of the uterus slough off during menses?
outer 2 layers of endometrium
234
what re the days of the postmenstrual phase?
days 6-13 or 14
| between the end of menses and ovulation
235
what phase do developing follicles secrete large amounts of estrogen and endometrial cells proliferate?
postmenstrual phase
236
what days does ovulation typically occur?
on day 14
237
what stage does a mature follicle rupture and release ovum?
ovulation
238
what days does the premenstrual phase occur?
days 15-28
| between ovulation and the onset of menses
239
what phase does the corpus leteum secrete mostly progesterone?
premenstrual phase
240
what cycle functions to make the uterus suitable for implantation of a new offspring?
endometrial cycle
241
what is the role of the myometrial cycle?
myometrium contracts during the 2 weeks leading up to ovulation/ Contractions then decrease to avoid risk of expelling a potentially fertilized and implanted egg
242
what cycle refers to the cyclical secretion of FSH and LH (gonadotrophins)?
gonadotropic cycle
243
where are FSH and LH released from?
the anterior pituitary gland
244
what controls cyclical changes?
hormones
245
what do clinical changes in the ovaries result from?
changes in the gonadotropins secreted by the pituitary gland
246
what do clinical changes in the uterus result from?
changes in estrogens and progesterone
247
what do low levels of FSH and LH cause?
regression of the corpus luteum
248
Infertility
failure to conceive after 1 year of regular unprotected intercourse
249
when does menopause occur?
40-55 years of age
250
what muscles does the breast lie over?
pectoral muscles
251
what hormones are involves in the development of breasts?
estrogens and progesterone
252
what are the size of the breasts determined by?
amount of fat around glandular tissue
253
what produces milk?
alveoli of the mammary gland
254
what carries milk to the nipple?
and a system of lactiferous ducts
255
what do the lobes of the breast consist of?
connective tissue embedded with pouches of milk secreting cells (alveoli)
256
what ligaments help support the breast?
suspensory ligaments
257
what is the function of the mammary gland?
lactation
258
what hormones make the breasts structurally ready to produce milk?
ovarian hormones
259
what does the shedding of the placenta result in?
a decrease of estrogens and thus stimulates prolactin
260
what does prolactin stimulate?
lactation
261
what additional hormone support lactation?
oxytocin
262
what is the importance of lactation?
can provide nutrient-rich milk to offspring for up to several years from birth
263
what are some advantages of breast milk?
- nutrients
- passive immunity from antibodies present in the colostrum and milk
- emotional bonding between mother and child
