Test #6 Flashcards
(236 cards)
1
Q
what is blood?
A
liquid connective tissue that provides a pick-up & delivery system, as well as a heat regulation mechanism, for the body.
2
Q
what are the 2 components that make up blood?
A
Plasma = liquid component Formed elements (cells) = suspended in plasma
3
Q
how much weight does blood make up in the human body?
A
8%
4
Q
what percent does blood plasma make up of the blood volume?
A
55%
5
Q
is blood plasma living or non living?
A
non-living
6
Q
what is blood plasma made up of?
A
primarily water containing many dissolved substances (e.g. nutrients, O2, salts, hormones, waste products)
7
Q
what are the plasma proteins in blood plasma?
A
- Albumins
- Globulins
- Fibrinogen
- Prothrombin
8
Q
Albumins
A
help thicken & maintain blood volume
9
Q
Globulins
A
include the antibodies that help protect against infections
10
Q
Fibrinogen
A
critical for blood clotting
11
Q
Prothrombin
A
critical for blood clotting
12
Q
Blood serum
A
blood plasma minus clotting factors (but still contains antibodies)
13
Q
what is the average amount of blood in the human body?
A
4-6 L
14
Q
what is the normal pH of blood?
A
7.35-7.45
15
Q
what are the 3 main types of formed elements in blood?
A
- red blood cells
- white blood cells
- platelets or thrombocytes
16
Q
Hematocrit Test (Hct)
A
a centrifuge is used to separate whole blood into formed elements (the packed cell volume or hematocrit) and a liquid fraction (plasma)
17
Q
RBC
A
- no nuclei or organelles
- primary component is the protein hemoglobin
- 4 month life span
18
Q
what depends on hemoglobin?
A
transport and exchange of O2 and CO2
19
Q
hemoglobin transports O2 as ____________
A
oxyhemoglobin
20
Q
hemoglobin transports CO2 as _________________
A
carbaminohemoglobin
21
Q
______ globulin chains: each attached to a ________ group
A
4, heme
22
Q
Anemia
A
Term used to describe a variety of conditions caused by an inability of the blood to carry adequate oxygen to body cells.
23
Q
when can anemia occur?
A
if there is a deficiency of RBC’s and hemoglobin
24
Q
what types of anemia are related to RBC?
A
aplastic anemia
pernicious anemia
folate deficiency anemia
blood loss or hemorrhagic anemia
25
What types of anemia are related to hemoglobin?
iron deficiency anemia
| sickle cell anemia
26
aplastic anemia
Decreased numbers of RBCs following destruction of hemopoietic elements in the bone marrow
treat with bone marrow transplants
27
Pernicious anemia
Decreased numbers of RBCs
Dietary deficiency of B12 or deficiency of intrinsic factor; which leads to decreased absorption of vitamin B12 (B12 is required for RBC production)
Can be fatal if not treated
28
Folate Deficiency Anemia
Similar to pernicious anemia – also causes a decrease in RBCs
Due to folate (folic acid) deficiency which is common among alcoholics and malnourished
Treated with vitamin supplementation
29
Blood loss or hemorrhagic anemia
Decreased RBC numbers caused by hemorrhage
30
Iron deficiency anemia
Deficiency of hemoglobin due to iron deficiency
Person will likely feel tired all the time
Can be treated with supplementation
31
Sickle cell anemia
Severe and sometimes fatal genetic disease (especially if gene is inherited from both parents)
Caused by an abnormal type of hemoglobin that forms solid crystals when blood oxygen is low
Causes RBC shape to become distorted; can no longer function properly
32
Polycythemia
Bone marrow produces too many RBCs leading to an abnormally high RBC count
Blood may become too thick to flow properly
Could result in stroke or heart attack
33
erythropoeisis
formation of RBC
34
what is the average lifespan of circulating RBC?
105-120 days
35
what are the 2 main systems by which blood can be classified?
- ABO system
| - Rh system
36
ABO system
In this system, blood types are identified by ‘self’-antigens in the plasma membranes of RBCs.
37
Antigen
substance that can activate various responses from the immune system, including the production of antibodies.
non self antigens
38
Antibody
substance made by the body in response to stimulation by an antigen.
. It will destroy or neutralize the antigen. Many react with their antigens by making them clump or stick together (agglutination).
39
what are the four blood types?
A
B
AB
O
40
what does the letter stand for in ABO blood types?
self antigen in the plasma membrane
41
look on Ch 27 slides on which blood types match with another!!!!!!!!
DO THIS!!!!!
42
what makes blood positive or negative?
Rh antigen
43
where is Rh positive or Rh negative located in the plasma membrane of a RBC?
Rh-positive antigen
44
what different between ABO and Rh antibodies?
no anti-Rh antibodies are naturally present in plasma
HOWEVER
Anti-Rh antibodies appear in the plasma of Rh-negative people if Rh-positive RBCs have been introduced into their bodies
45
what blood type is a universal donor?
O
| there are no antigens in the plasma
46
what blood type is a universal recipient?
AB+
| there are no anti-A, anti B or anti-Rh antibodies in plasma
47
when does Erythroblastosis fetalis most commonly occur?
The mother is Rh-
The father is Rh+
The baby inherits the father’s Rh+ trait, and
The mother carries a second Rh+ fetus
48
when does jaundice occur?
when anemia occurs (loss of RBC) and bilirubin is released and causes the baby to turn jaundice
49
what is another name for WBC?
leukocytes
50
what is the general function of WBCs?
defence/immunity
51
granulocytes
granules in cytoplasm
52
agranulocytes
no granules in cytoplasm
53
what are some examples of Granular leukocytes?
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
54
what are some examples of Non-granular or agranular leukocytes?
Lymphocytes
| Monocytes
55
Neutrophils
most numerous type of WBC (65% of total WBC count)
very active phagocytosis against pathogens
attracted to damaged cells at ‘infection’ site by chemotaxis
56
Eosinophils
weak phagocytes, abundant in mucus membranes
| protection against certain parasitic infections
57
Basophils
secrete heparin, a strong anticoagulant
| secrete histamine which is released during inflammatory reactions
58
B lymphocytes
produce antibodies
59
T lymphocytes
directly attack foreign cells
60
WBC disorders
Leukopenia
Leukocytosis leuko = white
Leukemia
61
Leukopenia
Abnormally low WBC count: < 5,000/mm3
62
Leukocytosis
Abnormally high WBC count: > 10,000/mm3
More common than leukopenia
Usually due to bacterial infections
63
Leukemia
WBC count >100,000/mm3
| WBCs don’t function properly
64
Monocytes
Largest WBC
| Mobile and highly phagocytic:
65
what 2 types of tissues are RBC and WBC produced by?
```
Myeloid tissue (red bone marrow)
Lymphatic tissue
```
66
Myeloid tissue (red bone marrow)
Found mainly in adult sternum, ribs, hip bones
| Forms all types of blood cells, although most lymphocytes and monocytes develop in lymphatic tissue
67
Lymphatic tissue
Found in lymph nodes, thymus, spleen
| Forms lymphocytes and monocytes
68
Platelets
thrombocytes
69
what are the 3 important properties in platelets?
Agglutination
Adhesivenss
Aggregration
70
platelets play an essential role in what?
blood clotting
71
Look at slides to know the steps on blood clotting!!!!
Ch. 27
| slide 46
72
Thrombus
a stationary blood clot – stays where it formed
73
Thrombosis
condition of having a thrombus
74
Embolus
term used for a part of a thrombus which
dislodges and circulates through the bloodstream; may block a
blood vessel
75
Embolism
condition of having an embolus
76
Hemophilia
Characterized by an inability to form blood clots
77
Fibrous portion of pericardium
tough, loose-fitting inextensible sac. Attaches to the large blood vessels that leave the top of the heart
78
Serous portion of pericardium
```
Parietal layer – lies inside the fibrous pericardium
Visceral layer (or epicardium) adheres to the outside of the heart
```
79
Epicardium
Visceral layer of the serous portion of the pericardium
80
Myocardium
Cardiac muscle tissue that makes up the bulk of the heart wall/wall of each heart chamber
Recall intercalated discs functional units called ‘synctium’ (joined cells)
81
Endocardium
Thin layer of very smooth tissue (endothelial tissue) that lines the inside of each heart chamber as well as the blood vessels
82
Atrium/Atria
Two upper chambers; divided by the interatrial septum
83
what does the atrium do?
receives
84
are the atrium walls thicker or thinner?
thinner
85
Ventricles
Two lower chambers; divided by the interventricular septum
86
what do the ventricles do?
discharging or pumping
87
why are the walls of the ventricles thicker?
because it has to pump to the rest of the body
88
Systole
contraction of the heart
89
Diastole
relaxation of the heart
90
what is the direction of blood controlled by?
valves
91
what is the direction of blood flow in the heart?
Atria receive blood- atria contract-
blood forced into ventricles -
ventricles fill-blood forced out of heart
92
AV valves
Separate atria from ventricles; prevent blood from flowing back into the atria from the ventricles when the ventricles contract
93
Tricuspid valve
on right side of heart (3 ‘flaps’)
94
Bicuspid or mitral valve
on left side of heart (2 ‘flaps)
95
Chordae tendinae
attach AV valves to wall of heart
96
Pulmonary SL valve
At entrance of the pulmonary artery/trunk
| Between right ventricle and pulmonary artery
97
Aortic SL valve
At entrance of the aorta
| Between left ventricle and aorta
98
RA and RV perform different functions from the_________
LA and LV
99
atrial systole
With each heart beat, the LA and RA contract simultaneously to fill the LV and RV with blood
100
ventricular systole
Next, the LV and RV contract simultaneously
101
blood flow through CV system on slides
ch. 28 slide.13
102
Coronary Circulation
Blood supply to the heart muscle
103
what arteries do the blood that supplies oxygen and nutrients to the myocardium, flows through?
the right and left coronary arteries (very first branches of the aorta)
104
where does the most abundant blood supply go to?
the myocardium of the left ventricle
105
coronary veins return blood to the ______
right atrium
106
what is myocardial infarction?
Blockage of blood flow through the coronary arteries
107
Angina pectoris
Chest pain caused by inadequateoxygen to the heart
108
Coronary bypass surgery
Veins from other parts of the body are used to bypass blockages in coronary arteries
109
myocardium is _______
autorhythmic – can produce its own action potentials
110
conduction system of the heart
Coordinated via a specialized network of fibres that can rapidly conduct impulses
111
Sinoatrial (SA) node
the pacemaker
Initiates impulse/heartbeat and sets its pace
located in the wall of the RA near the opening of the superior vena cava
112
AV (atrioventricular) node
located in the RA along the lower part of the interatrial septum
113
AV bundle (bundle of His)
located in the septum of the ventricle
114
Purkinje fibers
located in the walls of the ventricles
115
electrocardiogram
The electrical impulses of the heart’s conduction system can be recorded
116
P wave
represents depolarization (triggers contraction) of the atria
117
QRS complex
: represents depolarization of the ventricles
118
T wave
represents repolarization of the ventricles (just before relaxation phase)
119
cardiac cycle
each complete heartbeat
120
what sound does systole (contraction phase make?
lub
121
what sound does diastole (relaxation phase) make?
dup
122
Stroke volume
amount of blood that one ventricle ejects with each beat
123
Cardiac output
volume of blood that flows out of a ventricle per unit of time e.g. ml/min
124
Atrial Systole
Atria contract pressure gradient blood flows in to relaxed ventricles
125
Isovolumetric Ventricular Contraction
Intraventricular pressure begins to increase AV-valves close first heart sound
126
Ejection
SL-valves open blood leaves heart
127
Isovolumetric Ventricular Relaxation
Ventricles begin to relax SL-valves close, AV-valves open second heard sound
128
Passive Ventricular Filling
Intraventricular pressure drops; intraatrial pressure rises AV-valves open blood enters ventricles
129
First (lub) and longer sound (systolic): caused primarily by ________
the contraction of the ventricles and the vibrations of the closing AV valves
130
Second (dup) and shorter sound (diastolic): caused by _________
the vibrations of the closing semilunar valves during relaxation of the ventricles
131
angiogenesis
Formation begins during embryonic development and continues throughout life
132
Arteries
- carry blood away from the heart ventricles
- All carry oxygenated blood EXCEPT pulmonary artery
- elastic and muscular
133
capillaries
- Microscopic blood vessels
- site of gas and nutrient exchange between blood & tissue fluid around cells
- connect arteries and veins via arterioles and venules
134
microcirculation
Microscopic blood vessels
135
Veins
- carry blood toward the heart atria
| - superior and inferior vena cava are the largest ones
136
blood vessel circulation
```
heart
aorta
arteries
arterioles
capillary bed
venules
veins
superior vena cava
heart
```
137
what are the 4 types of materials that make up the wall of a blood vessel?
Endothelial tissue/endothelium (lining)
Collagen fibres
Elastic fibres
Smooth muscle tissue
138
Endothelial tissue/endothelium
- Provides the lumen of blood vessels with a smooth surface, thereby influencing blood flow and intravascular blood clotting
- Intercellular clefts between the cells and ‘fenestrations’ dictate movement of substances in and out of the blood vessel
- A special type of simple squamous epithelium; allows for exchange of gases, nutrients, and other substances
139
Collagen fibres
- Provide blood vessels with strength and some flexibility (much less than elastic fibres)
- Function to keep the lumen of blood vessels open
- Strengthen blood vessels walls
140
Elastic fibres
- Made of a protein polymer called ‘elastin’
- Arranged concentrically in large elastic arteries, allowing for distention and recoiling
- Maintain passive tension of blood vessels for normal blood pressure
141
Smooth muscle tissue
Found in the wall of all blood vessels EXCEPT capillaries
| Highest concentration is in elastic and muscular arteries contraction active tension
142
Tunica intima-artery
inner layer
| -Single layer of squamous epithelial cells
143
Tunica media-artery
middle layer
- Smooth muscle with a thin layer of elastic tissue
- Thicker in arteries than veins (to withstand systole)
- Important in BP regulation (smooth muscle – ANS)
144
Tunica adventitia/externa-artery
outermost layer
- Reinforces wall of vessel to withstand pressure
- Thicker than in veins
145
Tunica intima-vein
inner layer
| -Contain one-way valves to prevent backflow of blood (not found in arteries)
146
Tunica media-vein
middle layer
- Smooth muscle with a thin layer of elastic tissue
- Thinner in veins than arteries (lower blood pressure in veins)
147
Tunica adventitia/externa-vein
outermost layer
| -thinner than in arteries
148
Capillaries
Connect venules and arterioles
149
what is the only layers in capillaries?
tunica intima
- very thin
- flat epithelial cells
- allows substances to quickly pass through walls
150
what are the functions of arteries?
- move blood from heart to capillaries
- distribution of nutrients, gases, e.t.c with movement of blood under high pressure
- helps maintain blood pressure by constricting and dilating
151
what are the functions of veins?
- collect blood from capillaries for return to the heart
- low-pressure vessels, so can act as reservoirs
e. g. can expand to hold a larger amount of blood
152
what are the functions of capillaries?
serve as exchange vessels for nutrients, wastes, and fluids for every body cell
153
what are the 4 types of circulation?
Systemic Circulation
Pulmonary Circulation
Hepatic Portal Circulation
Fetal Circulation
154
what brings blood from the feet back to the heart?
contraction of muscles
155
systemic circulation
carries blood throughout the body (look at slides) ch.29
156
pulmonary circulation
Carries blood
| to/from lungs (look at slides) ch.29
157
hepatic circulation
- Unique blood route through the liver
- Blood from veins from spleen, stomach, pancreas, gallbladder and intestines does not go directly into inferior vena cava
158
where are the 2 capillary beds?
- digestive organ
| - liver
159
what does hepatic circulation assist with?
- homeostasis of blood glucose levels - liver cells store excess glucose as glycogen
- detoxification
160
fetal circulation
-Refers to circulation before birth
161
what are unique structures of fetal circulation?
```
umbilical arteries (umbilical cord)
Placenta
umbilical vein (umbilical cord)
ductus venosus
foramen ovale
ductus arteriosus
```
162
Umbilical arteries
2 small umbilical arteries that carry oxygen-poor blood from the developing fetus to the placenta
163
Placenta
- Attached to uterine wall
| - Site of exchange of oxygen, nutrients, toxins, and waste products between maternal and fetal blood
164
Umbilical Vein
- one umbilical vein (larger than the artery) carries oxygen-rich blood from the placenta to the fetus
- Gives of 2 or 3 branches at the fetal liver, then continues as the ductus venosus
165
Ductus Venosus
A continuation of the umbilical vein along the undersurface of the fetal liver.
-Shunts most of the blood returning from the placenta to the fetus past the fetus’ immature liver into the inferior vena cava
(this was bolded)
166
Foramen ovale
- An opening in the interatrial septum
- Shunts blood from the RA directly into the LA
- Allows most of the blood to bypass the fetus’ underdeveloped lungs
167
Ductus Arteriosus
- Connects the pulmonary artery/trunk with the aortic arch
| - Allows another portion of the blood to bypass the fetus’ underdeveloped lungs and enter systemic circulation
168
what does the umbilical vein become after birth?
round ligament of liver
169
what does the ductus venosus become after birth?
ligamentum venosus of liver
170
what happens to the foramen ovale after birth?
closes soon after the baby takes its first breath, which establishes pulmonary circulation; structural closure takes up to 9 months fossa ovalis in the wall of the right atrial septum
171
the ductus arteriosus _________
arteriosus contracts as soon as breathing starts ligamentum ateriosum
172
hemodynamics
Refers to the numerous mechanisms that influence the dynamics of the circulation of blood
173
Circulation control mechanisms in hemodynamics must
- Maintain circulation
| - Vary the volume and distribution of blood circulated
174
Blood flow between any two points in the circulatory system can always be predicted by the ______________
pressure gradient
175
what are the principles of pressure gradient?
- A fluid doesn’t flow when the pressure is the same throughout the system
- A fluid flows only when its pressure is higher in one area than in another, and it flows from its higher pressure area to its lower pressure area
176
what is normal blood pressure in arteries and veins?
Must be highest in arteries, lowest in veins to allow for proper circulation of blood
177
arterial BP is ________proportional to arterial blood volume
directly
178
what are the main factors that determine arterial BP?
-cardiac output
-peripheral resistance
(both are proportional to blood volume)
179
shunts
mixture of blood
180
Cardiac output
the amount of blood that flows out of a ventricle of the heart per unit of time
181
the greater the _______ the greater the CO
SV (stroke volume)
182
what is the formula for cardiac output?
SV(vol/beat) x HR(beat/min) = CO(vol/min)
183
SV
stroke volume - how strong the heart beats
184
Starling’s Law of the Heart
The more ‘stretched out’ heart muscle fibres are at the beginning of a contraction, the stronger the contraction will be
185
what are the factors that affect SV?
- strength of myocardial contractions (starlings law of the heart)
- Neurotransmitters
- Hormones
186
sympathetic
(cardiac nerve/NE)
187
what moves the blood
- heart
- arteriole wall
- contraction of muscles
188
parasympathetic
(vagus nerve/Ach)
189
Cardiac pressoreflexes
control centers that receive information from stretch receptors in the aorta and carotid sinuses. If high BP is detected, a motor message will be sent to the SA-node to decrease HR
190
what are some reflexes that influence heart rate (HR)
- emotions
- exercise
- hormones
- blood temperature
- pain
- stress responce
191
peripheral resistance
Any force that acts against the flow of blood
192
Blood viscosity
comes mainly from the proportion of RBCs and partly from blood protein concentration
193
vasomotor mechanism
Tension in the muscles of the blood vessel walls
194
Vasomotor center
located in the medulla can stimulate constriction of blood vessels
195
Vasomotor pressorelexes
the stretch receptors in the aorta and carotid sinuses response to increased BP and messages are sent to inhibit the vasomotor center; and vice-versa
196
Vasomotor chemoreflexes
same location as stretch receptors; are sensitive to excess carbon dioxide in the blood, as well as low oxygen and decreased arterial pH vasoconstriction
197
Hypertension
higher than normal blood pressure reading
| if BP is too high, it can cause the rupture of blood vessels
198
Hypotension
lower than normal blood pressure
| if BP is too low, blood may stop flowing
199
what is blood pressure measured with?
Sphygmomanometer
200
Central Venous Pressure
The venous blood pressure within the right atrium (close to zero!)
201
pulse
alternate expansion and recoiling of an arterial vessel wall
202
how many major pulse points are there?
9
203
what are the functions of the lymphatic system?
- Maintain fluid balance in the body
- Plays a role in immunity
- Fat absorption & transport
204
interstitial fluid (IF)
Blood plasma filters out of capillaries into the tiny spaces between cells of tissues
205
Lymph
- is excess IF that isn’t absorbed by tissue cells or reabsorbed by the blood before it flows out of the tissue, drains into lymphatic capillaries
- is ‘drained’ back into venous blood heart
206
what does lymph include?
proteins, fats, & other substances
207
Lymphatic Vessels
- Permit one-way movement of lymph towards heart
| - Collect excess IF (as lymph) and returns it to the blood stream via veins
208
what are the two types of lymphatic vessels?
- Lymphatic capillaries
| - Lymphatic ducts
209
Lymphatic Capillaries
Microscopic, blind-ended (open at one end) tubes found in tissue spaces wherever blood capillaries are
210
what is the structure of the Lymphatic Capillary walls?
are simple squamous epithelium and are very porous/permeable due to structure
211
lacteals
Lymphatic Capillaries in the intestinal wall
212
what are lymphatic capillaries compared to veins?
Lymphatic Capillaries have thinner walls, more valves, and contain lymph nodes
213
When fluid pressure is ______ in interstitial spaces than in lymphatic capillaries, ‘doors’ are pushed ______& fluid moves ____
When fluid pressure is greater in interstitial spaces than in lymphatic capillaries, ‘doors’ are pushed open & fluid moves in
214
When fluid pressure is greater ______ the lymphatic capillary than in interstitial spaces, doors are pushed _____, preventing lymph from leaking backwards
When fluid pressure is greater inside the lymphatic capillary than in interstitial spaces, doors are pushed shut, preventing lymph from leaking backwards
215
Right Lymphatic Duct
Drains lymph from right upper extremity, right side of head, neck, and upper torso right subclavian vein
216
Thoracic Duct
- Largest lymphatic vessel
| - Drains lymph from the rest of the body left subclavian vein
217
cisterna chyli
storage area for lymph moving towards entering the venous system
218
Function of lymphatic vessels
- Remove high–molecular-weight substances and even particulate matter from interstitial spaces
- Lacteals absorb fats and other nutrients from the small intestine
219
Circulation of Lymph
- No pump!
| - Relies on breathing and skeletal muscle contractions
220
Lymph Nodes (or glands)
- Filter lymph
- Located in clusters along the pathway of lymphatic vessels where they converge to form larger trunks (see Figures in Textbook)
- Functions include defense and WBC formation
221
Lymph Nodes structure
Oval-shaped
Fibrous capsule
‘biological’ filters
222
Flow of lymph
- In to node via several afferent lymph vessels
| - Drained away from node by a one or more efferent lymph vessel
223
what are the 2 distinct functions of lymph nodes?
- defence
| - hematopoiesis
224
Defense functions of lymph nodes
- Mechanical filtration (physically ‘trapping’ particles)
| - Biological filtration (cells destroy and remove particles)
225
Hematopoiesis of lymph nodes
Maturation of some lymphocytes and monocytes
226
what are 2 sets of lymphatic vessels that are drained from the breast?
- Drains skin over the breast (minus the skin of the areola and nipple)
- Drains underlying substances of breast, plus the skin of the areola and nipple
227
where is the cisterna chyli located?
thoractic duct
228
Tonsils
Composed of three masses of lymphoid tissue around the openings of the mouth and throat
229
Palatine tonsils
tonsils (“the tonsils”) are the largest, and most often infected. On each side of throat
230
what are the 3 tonsils?
- Palatine tonsils
- Pharyngeal tonsils
- Lingual tonsils
231
what is the function of tonsils?
Function is to gather & remove pathogens entering pharynx
232
what structure is subject to chronic infection?
tonsil
233
what is the vital role of the thymus?
immunity
234
Spleen
Largest lymphoid organ in body; ovoid shape
235
what are the spleens functions?
- defense
- tissue repair
- hematopoiesis
- destroys and recycles
- blood reservoir
236
does the umbilical veins or arteries carry oxygen rich blood?
umbilical vein
