test 7 Flashcards
(279 cards)
1
Q
what systems work hand in hand?
A
immune and lymphatic
- protects the body from pathogens
- is made up of the Lymphatic System, specialized cells, and ‘free-floating’ molecules
2
Q
what are the 2 main types if antigens?
A
- self antigens
- non self antigen
3
Q
self antigen
A
on the surface of cells that are unique to an individual (e.g. antigens on an individual’s red blood cells)
4
Q
non self antigen
A
on the surface of foreign cells (e.g. pathogens, organ transplants)
5
Q
Self-tolerance (self antigen)
A
The immune system attacks abnormal or foreign cells but leaves the body’s own cells alone
6
Q
Immunocompetence (non self antigen)
A
the ability of the immune system to activate an effective response to a nonself antigen
7
Q
Innate (non-specific) immunity
A
-always present and ‘in place’
-general defense against ‘nonself’ antigens
-quick, initial response
SKIN
8
Q
Adaptive (specific) immunity
A
- develops through exposure to ‘nonself’ antigens
- response is specific, that is, unique to particular antigens
- slower, developed response (especially if it is the body’s first exposure to the antigen)
9
Q
what are Epithelial barrier cells?
A
skin, mucosa
10
Q
Phagocytic cells
A
- neutrophils
- monocytes
- macrophages
- natural killer (NK cells)
11
Q
Kupffer’s cells
A
liver
12
Q
dust cells
A
lung
13
Q
what substances contribute to the immune response?
A
- Cytokines
- Complement
- Antibodies
- Interferon
14
Q
Cytokines
A
Chemicals released from cells to trigger or regulate immune responses
15
Q
examples of cytokinesis
A
interleukins (ILs), leukotrines, interferons (IFNs)
16
Q
Complement
A
A group of about 20 inactive enzymes (plasma proteins)
Produce a domino effect of reactions formation of a membrane attack complex (MAC)
17
Q
what is the end results of complement?
A
lysis of ‘foreign’ cell
18
Q
lymphocytes
A
- B-cells
- T-cells
19
Q
Antibodies
A
a plasma protein made by B-lymphocytes (B cells) to destroy or inactive antigens
20
Q
Interferon
A
- a protein made by certain cells when they are invaded by a virus
- interferes with virus replication
21
Q
what is located in the first line of defence?
innate/non-specific
A
- skin
- mucosa
- tears, HCI
- saliva
22
Q
apoptosis
A
cell kills itself
23
Q
what is located in the second line of defence? (innate/non-specific)
A
Inflammation
-heat,redness,pain,swelling
-may include fever
phagocytes
24
Q
what is located in the third line of defence?
adaptive/specific
A
- phagoctyes (APCs)
- specific immune responces
- natural killer cells
25
inflammatory responce
A generalized response to pathogens that are causing tissue damage (signs = heat, redness, pain, swelling; fever)
26
what does inflammatory response trigger?
release of immune factors from immune system cells
- attracts WBC's
- causes increased blood flow
27
which immunity has a memory (if the body is ever exposed to the same antigen, the immune response will be even stronger than it was before)
adaptive/specific immunity
28
what does adaptive/specific involve?
B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes
29
where do B and T cells originate?
immature hematopoietic cells in red bone marrow
30
how do B and T cells become activated?
by exposure to antigens/chemical signals however they have very different immune mechanisms once activated
31
Plasma cells
secrete antibodies into blood to form an ‘army’ of protection against an antigen
32
Memory cells
are stored in lymph nodes as an ‘emergency supply’ and then if subsequent exposure to the same antigen occurs, memory cells quickly become plasma cells and secrete antibodies
33
B cells Launch attack by making antibodies that either _________
- attack antigens; or
| - direct other cells to attack antigens
34
do B cells directly attack antigens?
no
35
What are B cells referred as?
- antibody-mediated immunity
| - humoral immunity
36
antibodies are types of _______
immunoglobulins
37
antigen–antibody complex
Combining sites attach antibodies to specific antigens
38
humoral or antibody-mediated immunity
Inactivation of antigens
39
Antibodies (aka immunoglobulins or Igs) modes of action
- Neutralize toxins
- Clump or agglutinate enemy cells
- Promote phagocytosis
- Complement fixation
40
cytolysis
cell bursts due to an increase in internal osmotic pressure
41
do T cells make antibodies?
no
42
T cells react to cells that are_____
already infected or have engulfed antigen
43
Memory T cells
- Remain in red bone marrow until needed
| - Produce more active T cells if necessary
44
Effector T cells
- Use ‘contact’ to kill APCs/infected cells
| - Release cytokines to orchestrate killing of APCs/infected cells
45
Interleukins (ILs)
are a class of cytokines involved in a wide variety of immune functions in different cell types
46
Lymphotoxins
are powerful poisons that act more directly, quickly killing any cell it attacks
47
Cytotoxic T cells
- aka ‘killer T cells’
- Release lymphotoxins
- Cause contact killing of a target cell (APC or infected cell)
48
Helper T cells (TH) & Suppressor T cells
Help to regulate adaptive immunity by regulating B & T cells
49
Helper T cells
- Secrete cytokines that stimulate B cells and cytotoxic T cells as well as phagocytes and other leukocytes
- Activated TH form cloned populations of TH cells & memory TH cells
50
Suppressor T cells
- aka or Regulator cells (T-regs)
- Suppress B cell differentiation into plasma cells (allows fine tuning of antibody-mediated response)
- Regulate other T cells, including reducing T-cell reactions to self-antigens
51
humoral immunity activates
B cells
52
in humoral immunity, it is conferred by_______
action of antibodies
53
cell-mediated activates
T cells
54
MAC
membrane attack complexes
55
in cell mediated immunity it is conferred by _________
action of cells
56
adaptive/specific immunity can be either
- natural immunity
| - artificial/acquired immunity
57
natural immunity
exposure to pathogen is not deliberate
58
artificial/acquired immunity
exposure to pathogen is deliberate
59
which immunity is inherited?
natural immunity
60
Active natural immunity
active disease promotes immunity (production of antibodies)
61
passive natural immunity
mother passes immunity (antibodies) to fetus through placenta or breast milk
62
In natural immunity, exposure to pathogen is _________
non deliberate
63
in artificial immunity, exposure of immunity is ___________
deliberate
64
what are the functions of the respiratory system?
```
AIR DISTRIBUTOR
GAS EXCHANGER
Homeostatic mechanism (e.g. pH)
Filters, warms, and humidifies air for breathing
Speech and sound production
Olfaction
```
65
what is located in the upper respiratory tract?
Nose
Pharynx (all parts)
Larynx
(head cold)
66
what is located in the lower respiratory tract?
Trachea
Bronchial tree
Lungs
(chest cold)
67
external structures of the nose
- bone and cartilage covered with skin with sebaceous glands
- nasal bones(2)
- nose is surrounded by maxilla
68
internal structures of the nose (nasal cavity)
- Lies over roof of mouth (separated by palantine bones*)
- Cribiform plate – separates roof of nose from cranial cavity
- Septum – separates nasal cavity into right and left sides
69
Cleft palate
palantine bones don’t ‘close’/join nose and mouth are only partially separated difficulty swallowing
70
what is each nasal cavity divided into?
superior, middle, and inferior meatus
71
what is the entrance for air?
nostrils (external nares)
72
what structures drain into the nose?
Paranasal sinuses (frontal, maxillary, sphenoidal, ethmoidal) and lacrimal sacs
73
Conchae
(superior, middle, inferior) are ‘fold-like’ structures that increase surface area in nasal cavity
74
Respiratory Mucosa
Specialized membrane that lines the air distribution tubes of the respiratory system
75
does the respiratory mucosa have a rich or poor blood supply?
rich blood supply
76
Cilia
go in one direction to propel mucous and trapped irritants toward the pharynx for expulsion
77
how many pairs of paranasal sinus are there?
4
78
what is the function of the nose?
- Passageway for air to and from lungs
- Filters, warms, and moistens inhaled air as it flows over the conchae
- Contains sense organs of smell (olfactory receptors) in the nasal mucosa
- Aids speech
79
what are the 3 segments of the pharynx?
- Nasopharynx
- Oropharynx
- Laryngopharynx
80
where are the Pharyngeal tonsils located?
nasopharynx
81
where are the Palantine tonsils (‘tonsils’) and lingual tonsils located?
oropharynx
82
Eustachian/auditory tubes
open into middle ears with nasopharynx allowing for air pressure
83
what are the functions of the pharynx (throat)
- passageway for food and liquids to the esophagus
| - passageway for air to the respiratory tree
84
where is the larynx located?
just below the pharynx
85
what is 'framework'?
several pieces of cartilage?
86
what is the largest cartilage?
thyroid (Adams apple)
87
what is the function of the epiglottis?
partially covers opening into larynx – closes off the larynx when we swallow to prevent food from entering trachea
88
describe vocal cords
2 fibrous bands that stretch across the interior of the larynx
89
what are the functions of the larynx?
- Air distribution; passageway for air to move to and from lungs
- Voice production via muscles attached to the larynx cartilage that pull on the vocal cords
90
what sound does your voice make when your cords are tense?
high pitched sounds
91
what sound does your voice make when your cords are relaxed?
low pitched sound
92
what is the trachea held open by?
C shaped rings of cartilage
93
where does the trachea course?
from larynx to primary bronchi
94
what are the branches of the trachea?
right and left bronchi (primary bronchi) which lead into right and left lungs
95
once in lung, what do the bronchi branch into?
bronchioles (23) (smooth muscle)
96
alveolar ducts
look like stem of grapes-microscopic tubes
97
alveolar sacs
look like grapes-alveolar ducts end in clusters
98
Bronchi and bronchioles
Passage way for air to move to & from alveoli
99
Site of exchange of O2 and CO2 between _________in lung capillaries and _____alveoli
Site of exchange of O2 and CO2 between blood in lung capillaries and air in alveoli
100
structure of alveoli
- thin walled, single layer of cells
| - direct contact with blood capillary
101
surfactant
– a substance that reduces surface tension to prevent collapse of alveoli as air moves in & out
102
how many lobes does the right lung have?
3
103
how many lobes does the left lung have?
2
104
what is located in the lung hilum?
where primary bronchi & pulmonary blood vessels enter
105
Pleura
Moist, smooth, slippery membrane that lines chest cavity and covers outer surface of lungs
106
Parietal
Lines walls of thoracic cavity
107
Visceral
Covers lungs
108
Intrapleural space
Lies between parietal and visceral
109
Pleurisy
Inflammation of the pleura
110
Pneumothorax
lung collapse
111
when does lung Pneumothorax occur?
- due to the presence of air in the intrapleural space on one side of the chest
- the air increases the pressure on that side of the lung, causing it to collapse
112
difference between lung and pleura
```
lungs
Pulmonary ventilation (breathing)
```
pleura
Reduces friction between the lungs and chest wall during breathing
113
pulmonary ventilation
air moving in and out of the lungs (aka breathing)
114
External Respiration
- pulmonary ventilation
| - pulmonary gas exchange
115
Internal Respiration
exchange of gases between the blood and the cells of the body/systemic tissue
116
Cellular Respiration
use of oxygen by cells in the process of metabolism (occurs in mitochondria)
117
Inspiration
movement of air into lungs
118
Expiration
movement of air out of lungs
119
what causes air to move in and out of lungs?
air pressure
120
When pressure within the alveoli of the lungs is lower than atmospheric pressure=
inspiration
121
When pressure in the alveoli of the lungs is higher than atmospheric pressure =
expiration
122
what are the respiration muscles?
- diaphragm
- internal intercostals
- external intercostals
123
when breathing in what does the diaphragm do?
- contracts and flattens
| - increase height of chest ccavity
124
when breathing in what does the external intercostals do?
- contraction lifts ribs
| - increase depth and width of chest cavity
125
Elastic recoil of lung tissues aids in ________
expiration
126
what muscles are used in a forced expiration?
internal intercostals and abdominal muscles
127
what 2 muscles are involved when breathing in?
external intercostals and diaphragm
128
Internal intercostals=
contraction depresses the rib cage decreases ‘depth’ of chest cavity
129
Abdominal muscles contraction =
abdominal organs push up against diaphragm ↓‘height’ of chest cavity
130
Reduction in the size of chest cavity=
↑ its pressure and air leaves the lungs
131
Tidal volume (TV)
amount of air exhaled after normal inspiration
132
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal expiration (e.g. after expiring the tidal volume)
133
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal inspiration
134
Residual volume (RV)
air left in lungs after the most forceful expiration
135
Vital capacity (VC) =
IRV + TV + ERV
136
Vital capacity (VC) is _____
largest amount of air that can be breathed out in one respiration/pulmonary ventilation
137
Respiratory control centers
stimulate muscles of respiratory system with nervous impulses
138
where are Respiratory control centers located?
in medulla and pons
139
what are the most important Respiratory control centers in the medulla?
Inspiratory center
| Expiratory center
140
what is the normal respiratory rate?
12-18 per minute
141
what is the medulla respiratory control center influenced by?
```
cerebral cortex (voluntary but limited)
receptors (involuntary)
```
142
Cerebral cortex (voluntary but limited)
Individual can change respiration characteristics voluntarily (singing, swimming, blowing balloon, etc.)
143
Receptors
- Chemoreceptors (involuntary)
| - Pulmonary stretch receptors
144
where are chemoreceptors located?
carotid and aortic bodies (respond to changes in O2, CO2 and pH blood levels)
145
where are pulmonary stretch receptors located?
throughout the pulmonary airways (including alveoli)
| Prevent lungs from overinflating
146
Eupnea
normal breathing
147
Hyperventilation
rapid and deep respirations
148
Hypoventilation
slow and shallow respirations
149
Dyspnea
labored or difficult respirations
150
Apnea
stopped respirations
151
Respiratory arrest
failure to resume breathing after a period of apnea
152
Pulmonary gas exchange
exchange of gases in the lungs which takes place between the alveolar air and the blood flowing through the lung capillaries`
153
The amount of O2 that diffuses into the blood can be affected by:
1. The oxygen pressure gradient between alveolar air and blood
2. The total functional surface area of the respiratory membrane
3. The respiratory minute volume (ml of air moved per minute)
4. Alveolar ventilation (volume of inspired air that reaches the alveoli) & alveolar function
154
Structural facts that facilitate oxygen diffusion from the alveolar air to the blood are:
1. The walls of the alveoli and capillaries form only a very thin barrier for gases to cross
2. The alveolar and capillary surfaces are large
3. The blood is distributed through the capillaries in a thin layer so that each red blood cell comes close to alveolar air
155
pulmonary gas exchange occurs via
passive diffusion due to the pressure gradient of O2 and CO2 between blood and lung capillaries surrounding alveoli
156
how is O2 passed?
will follow its concentration gradient from an area of high to low concentration
157
how is CO2 passed?
will diffuse in the opposite direction
158
O2 moves from alveoli into _____
lung capillaries
159
what does hemoglobin combine with?
oxyhemoglobin
160
internal respiration
Exchange of gases between blood in tissue capillaries and the body cells
161
O2 moves out of tissue capillary blood=
IF-tissue cells
162
CO2 moves from tissue cells=
IF-tissue capillary blood
163
how are O2 and CO2 transported in the blood?
in a dissolved state or combined with other chemicals
164
what percent of hemoglobin is combined with O2?
97%
165
Hemoglobin molecules
= large proteins containing 4 iron-containing heme components, each capable of combining with an O2 molecule
166
what are the two forms of O2 in the blood?
- dissolved O2
| - oxyhemoglobin
167
what is the byproduct of cellular metabolism
CO2
168
Dissolved CO2
10% of total CO2 transported in blood
| Produces PCO2 of blood plasma
169
Carbaminohemoglobin
CO2 + hemoglobin + other plasma proteins
20% of total CO2 transported in blood
Formation is accelerated by an increase in PCO2 and slowed down by a decrease in PCO2
170
Bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)
70% of total CO2 transported in blood
171
what are the functions of the digestive system?
- digestion
- absorption
- metabolism
172
what are the 4 layers of the walls of the GI tract from inside to outside?
- mucosa
- submucosa
- muscularis
- serosa
173
what does the mucosa layer secrete?
digestive enzymes and hormones
174
what does the mucosa layer absorb?
end products of digestion
175
what does mucosa protect against?
pathogen
176
what does the submucosa layer contain?
glands, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and parasympathetic nerves
177
is the submucosa elastic?
yes, contains elastic fibres especially in the stomach
178
what is the purpose of the muscularis?
- mixes and churns food
| - peristalsis
179
what are the 3 layers of the muscularis?
- inner circular
- outer longitudinal
- oblique
180
what does the serosa layer consist of?
visceral and parietal peritoneum in abdominal cavity
181
where does the process of digestion begin?
in the mouth
182
what is the 3 parts the mucosa lined with?
- roof
- floor
- walls
183
what are the 3 parts of the roof of the mouth?
- hard palate
- soft palate
- uvula
184
hard palate
2 maxillary & 2 palatine bones
185
soft palate
arch-shaped muscle; separates mouth from nasopharynx
186
uvula
projection of soft palate
187
what prevents food and liquid from entering nasal cavities?
uvula and soft palate
188
what is located on the floor of the mouth?
tongue and its muscles
189
what is the name of the structure that attaches the tongue to the floor of the mouth?
frenulum
190
what are the 3 parts of the tongue?
tip, body, and root
191
what are small nipple-like projections on tongue called?
papillae
192
where are taste buds found?
papillae
193
what is ankyloglossia?
tongue tied
194
what contains mucous secreting glands?
walls of the mouth-cheeks (buccinator muscle)
195
what is the oral fissure?
line of contact between closed lips
196
what is the function of salivary glands
secrete saliva
197
what are the 3 glands associated with the salivary glands?
- parotid glands
- submandibular glands
- sublingual glands
198
what is the largest salivary gland?
parotid gland
199
where is the Submandibular glands?
below mandible
200
where are the Sublingual glands?
below tongue
201
what is the function off parotid glands?
Produce watery saliva containing enzymes
202
where are the parotid glands
Bottom of ear at jaw angle
| Ducts secrete into mouth cavity
203
where are the Submandibular glands?
Middle of mandible
| Ducts secrete on either side of lingual frenulum
204
what is the function of the Submandibular glands?
Contain enzyme- and mucous-producing substances
205
where are the sublingual glands?
Anterior to submandibular glands
| Ducts secrete into floor of mouth
206
what is the function of the sublingual glands?
Produce a mucus type of saliva
207
what are the sections of a typical tooth?
- crown
- neck
- root
208
what is the visible part of the tooth?
crown
209
what is enamel?
crown is covered by this
| -hardest tissue in body, perfect for withstanding the abrasion of chewing food
210
what does the pulp cavity in the centre of the tooth contain?
connective tissue, blood & lymphatic vessels & sensory nerves
211
what is the neck of the tooth?
joins crown to root
| -surrounded by pink tissue (gums)
212
what is the root of the tooth?
Fits in socket/jaw bone
| Socket lined with periodontal membrane – anchors tooth to bone
213
what is baby teeth called?
Deciduous teeth
214
how many baby teeth do you have?
20
215
how many adult teeth do you have?
32
216
what are the 2 functions of the pharynx?
- air must pass through pharynx on its way to lungs
| - food must pass through pharynx on its way to stomach
217
what tube connects the pharynx with the stomach?
esophagus
218
where does chemical; digestion of proteins begin?
stomach
219
what is the cardia?
collar like region at junction with esophagus
220
what is the pylorus of the stomach?
lower part of the stomach
221
what is another name for the cardiac sphincter?
lower esophageal sphincter (LES)
222
what is the cardiac sphincter?
Ring of muscle at end of esophagus
| Prevents stomach contents from refluxing back into esophagus
223
what is hiatal hernia?
end of esophagus may buldge
| can lead to GERD
224
what is the pyloric sphincter?
Controls emptying of stomach into the duodenum (first part of small intestine)
225
what are the gastric juices?
chief cells
parietal cells
endocrine cells
226
chief cells
secrete enzymes of gastric juice
227
parietal cells
secrete HCI
228
endocrine cells
secrete hormones (gastrin and ghrelin)
229
what are the functions of the stomach?
on CH.38 slide 34
230
what are the 3 divisions of the small intestine?
- duodenum
- jejunum
- ileum
231
what is plicae?
small intestine arranged into multiple circular folds that's covered with villi
232
what is the large intestine lined with?
mucous membrane
- absorption of water, salts, vitamins
- no villi
233
cecum
pouch-like 1st section
234
rectum
holding tank before exit
235
Vermiform
worm shaped
236
what are the left and right lobes of the liver separated by?
falciform ligament
237
what are the functions of the liver?
- Detoxification
- Bile secretion
- Liver metabolism
- Storage
- production
238
what happens when the bile becomes too concentrated?
gallstones
239
what do the alpha cells in the pancreas secrete?
glucagon
240
what do the beta cells secrete?
insulin
241
what are the steps of digestion?
- Ingestion
- Digestion
- Motility of the GI wall
- Secretion
- Absorption
- Elimination
- Regulation
242
what is mechanical digestion?
chewing
243
what is Chemical digestion?
breaks molecules apart; chemically changes the food
244
is the inner anal sphincter voluntary or involuntary?
involuntary
245
is the outer anal sphincter voluntary or involuntary?
voluntary
246
what does mechanical digestion involve?
- mastication (chewing)
- deglutition (swallowing)
- peristalsis and segmentation
- regulation of motility
- intestinal motility
247
what are the 3 stages of swallowing?
- oral
- pharyngeal
- esophageal
248
what happens in the oral stage?
food bolus is formed, pushed against palate by tongue, then moved back into the oropharynx
249
what happens in the pharyngeal stage?
Requires blockage of mouth, nasopharynx and larynx
| Accomplished by contractions & gravity
250
what happens in the esophageal stage?
Accomplished by contractions and gravity
251
Peristalsis
wave-like ripple of the muscle layer of a hollow organ that moves matter forward in the GI tract
Triggered by the presence of food.
252
Segmentation
a forward-and-backward mixing movement within a single segment of the GI tract
253
what controls the emptying of the stomach?
- hormonal mechanisms
| - nervous mechanisms
254
Intestinal motility
peristalsis & segmentation
255
Chemical changes result from __________
hydrolysis
256
where are Carbohydrates?
Begins in the mouth (salivary amylase)
None occurs in stomach
Most occurs in small intestine
257
what are the steps of carbohydrate digestion?
Polysaccharidesdisaccharidsmonosaccharides
258
Maltase
maltose glucose + glucose
259
Sucrase
sucrose glucose + fructose
260
Lactase
lactose glucose + galactose
261
where do proteins change to amino acids?
begins in stomach and completed in the small intestine
262
Main proteases are
- pepsin
- trysin and chymotrypsin
- Peptidases
263
Pepsin
Gastric juice, partially digests proteins
264
Trypsin and chymotrypsin
Pancreatic enzymes, continue digestion of proteins
265
Peptidases
Intestinal enzymes, complete digestion of protein amino acids
266
portal triad in liver?
- interlobular artery
- interlobular portal vein
- interlobular bile duct
267
bile contains?
no enzymes but emulsifies fats
268
what is the main enzyme in saliva?
amylaze
269
Gastric juice
secreted by exocrine gastric glands in stomach
270
Pepsin
protease that begins digestion of proteins
271
HCl
decreases pH of chyme to a level that activates and optimizes pepsin activity
272
Intrinsic factor
required for vitamin B12 absorption
273
Mucus & water
lubricate, protect, and help with mixing of chyme
274
what are the 3 phases of gastric secretion?
- cephalic
- gastric
- intestinal
275
Cephalic phase
- Sensations of thoughts of food are sent to the brainstem
- Parasympathetic signals are sent to the gastric mucosa via vagus nerve
- Gastric juice secretion is stimulated
- Gastrin secretion is stimulated
276
Gastric phase
- Presence of food in stomach distention
| - Triggers reflexes that increase secretion of gastric juices and gastrin
277
Intestinal phase
- Occurs as food moves into/through duodenum
| - Presence of fats, carbs, proteins & acid stimulates hormonal and nervous reflexes that inhibit stomach activity
278
Pancreatic secretion
Stimulated by several hormones released by intestinal mucosa
279
what stimulates contraction of gallbladder?
CCK
