Test #5 Flashcards
(174 cards)
1
Q
What is the spinal nerve function?
A
Conduct impulses between the spinal cord and the other parts of the body not supplied by cranial nerves
2
Q
what fibres do the spinal nerves contain?
A
Contain sensory and motor fibres
3
Q
what are intervertebral foramina?
A
Thoracic nerves exit horizontally through these
4
Q
what is Cauda equina?
A
describes the appearance of the lower end of the spinal cord and its spinal nerves as a horse’s tail
5
Q
what are the 2 roots each spinal nerve attaches to the spinal cord?
A
- dorsal root (posterior)
- ventral root (anterior)
6
Q
what does the dorsal root contain?
A
sensory neurons and the dorsal root ganglia
7
Q
what does the ventral root contain?
A
contains somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary) motor fibres that arise from the anterior lateral horns
8
Q
what is the ramus?
A
One of several large branches formed after each spinal nerve emerges from the spinal cavity
Dorsal ramus and ventral ramus
9
Q
which ramus is more complex?
A
ventral
10
Q
what is the plexus?
A
Complex networks formed by the ventral rami of most spinal nerves (except T2 to T12)
Subdivide and join to form a single peripheral nerve that contains all the fibres that innervate a particular region of the body
11
Q
what are the 4 major plexuses?
A
- cervical
- branchial
- lumbar
- sacral and coccygeal
12
Q
where is the cervical plexus?
A
deep within the neck
- muscles
- skin of neck
- upper shoulders
- part of head
13
Q
where is the branchial plexus?
A
deep within shoulder
- lower part of shoulder
- entire arm
14
Q
where is the lumbar plexus?
A
lower back and psoas muscle
- thigh
- leg
15
Q
where is the sacral and coccygeal plexus?
A
- supplies most of the skin of the leg as well as leg and foot muscles
- sciatica
16
Q
what is dermatome?
A
a specific area of skin surface supplied by sensory fibres of a single spinal nerve
17
Q
what is a myotome?
A
a skeletal muscle or muscles supplied by motor fibres of a given spinal nerve
18
Q
how many cranial nerves are there?
A
12 pairs
19
Q
where do the cranial nerves connect?
A
brainstem
20
Q
what is the function of the cranial nerves?
A
conduct impulses between the brain and structures in the head and neck and in the thoracic and abdominal cavities
21
Q
Olfactory
A
smell
22
Q
Optic
A
Vision
23
Q
Oculomotor
A
eye muscles
24
Q
Trochlear
A
eye muscles
25
Trigeminal
sensations of teeth, face, scalp & chewing muscles
26
Abducens
eye muscles
27
Facial
face,salivary glands,taste
28
Vestibulocochlear
hearing and sense of balance/equillibrium
29
Glossopharyngeal
taste, swallowing, saliva, throat sensations
30
Vagus
Numerous functions: ex: heart rate, breathing, digestion
31
Accessory
neck/shoulder muscles
32
Hypoglossal:
moves tongue
33
afferent-sensory or motor?
sensory
34
efferent-sensory or motor?
motor
| somatic and autonomic
35
what is the somatic nervous system?
includes all voluntary motor pathways outside the central nervous system
36
what are somatic effectors?
skeletal muscles
37
what is a reflex?
an action that results from a nerve impulse passing over a reflex arc. It is a predictable response to a stimulus
38
where is the center reflex arc in cranial?
brain
39
where is the center reflex arc in spinal?
spinal cord
40
what is a somatic reflex?
contraction of skeletal muscle
41
what is automatic reflex?
contraction of smooth muscle or cardiac muscle, or secretion by glands
42
what is the main function of the Automatic nervous system?
regulate heartbeat, smooth muscle contraction, glandular secretions, and metabolic functions to maintain homeostatic balance and react to threats to that balance
43
what are the 2 motor/efferent divisions?
- sympathetic
| - parasympathetic
44
what is each pathway of the efferent ANS made up of?
autonomic nerves, ganglia, and plexuses, which are made of efferent autonomic neurons
45
all autonomic neurons function in ________
reflex arcs
46
what are the 2 efferent neurons?
- preganglionic neurons
| - postganglionic neurons
47
what does the preganglionic neurons do?
conduct impulses from CNS to an autonomic ganglia where it synapses with postganglionic neurons
48
what does the postganglionic neurons do?
they will conduct impulses to effectors
49
Sympathetic __________ have dendrites and cell bodies in _________, most of which are located in the front and on each side of the spinal column
Sympathetic postganglionic neurons have dendrites and cell bodies in sympathetic ganglia, most of which are located in the front and on each side of the spinal column
50
what are sympathetic chains?
the sympathetic ganglia are strung along the nerve fibres like beads
51
how many chains of sympathetic chain ganglia are there?
22 (each chain runs from coccyx)
52
where do preganglionic neurons have dendrites and cell bodies?
in the lateral gray horns of the thoracic and upper lumbar segments of the spinal cord
53
Once inside the sympathetic chain ganglion, preganglionic neurons may......
- Synapse with a sympathetic postganglionic neuron
- Send ascending or descending branches through the sympathetic trunk to synapse with postganglionic neurons in other chain ganglia
- Pass through one or more chain ganglia without synapsing
54
As there are many postganglionic neurons involved, sympathetic responses are usually widespread, involving many _____ effectors/organs
viseral
55
what are the functions of the sympathetic nervous system?
- stress system
- Decreases ‘non-essential’ functions (e.g. digestion)
- Controls visceral effectors during all types of stressful/strenuous events/activities
- Group of changes induced by sympathetic control is called the fight-or-flight response
56
what extend a considerable distance away from the CNS before synapsing with a postganglionic neuron in the parasympathetic nervous system?
Axons of parasympathetic preganglionic neuron
57
what is the function of the parasympathetic nervous system?
Dominates control of most visceral effectors (organs) under normal every day conditions
-rest and repair
58
what is a neurotransmitter?
chemicals by which neurons communicate across a synapse
59
what are the 2 types of fibres in the autonomic nervous system?
- adrenergic fibres
| - cholinergic fibres
60
what fibre are most postganglionic sympathetic neurons?
adrenergic fibres
61
what do adrenergic fibres release?
noradrenaline
62
what do cholinergic fibres release?
acetylcholine
63
The effect of a neurotransmitter on any postsynaptic neuron is determined by ____________
characteristics of the receptors, not by the neurotransmitter.
64
what does acetylcholine from the parasympathetic NS do?
slows heart
65
what does noradrenaline from the sympathetic NS do?
speeds up heart
66
what happens once Once the neurotransmitters/receptors have ‘done their job’?
they neurotransmitter is either broken down by specific enzymes or reabsorbed back into the synaptic knobs
67
look at ANS summary
ch 22
68
what is the general function of receptors?
respond to stimuli by converting them to nerve impulses.
69
a receptor potential is a __________
graded response
70
what does an adaptation mean?
process of receptor potentials to decrease overtime in response to a continuous stimulus
71
what are general sense organs?
somatic senses are microscopic receptors widely distributed throughout the body in the skin, mucosa, connective tissue, muscles, tendons, joints, and viscera
72
exteroceptors
- on or near body surface
| - often called cutaneous receptors ex) pressure, touch, pain, temp
73
Interoceptors /Visceroceptors
- located internally, often within body organs
| - provide body with information about internal environment such as pressure, stretch, chemical changes, hunger, thirst
74
Proprioceptors
A special type of interoceptor/visceroceptor
- Location limited to skeletal muscle, joint capsules, and tendons
- Provide information on body movement, orientation in space, and muscle stretch
75
what are the two types of Proprioceptors?
- tonic (rest)
| - phasic (movement)
76
Mechanoreceptors
activated when “deformed”
77
Chemoreceptors
activated by certain chemicals, e.g. taste and smell
78
Thermoreceptors
activated by changes in temperature
79
Nociceptors
activated by intense stimuli that may damage tissue (sensation produced is pain)
80
Photoreceptors
found only in the eye; respond to light stimuli
81
Osmoreceptors
concentrated in the hypothalamus; activated by changes in concentration of electrolytes (osmolarity) in extracellular fluids. Involved in thirst mechanism
82
what is the simplest, most common, and most widely distributed sensory receptor?
free nerve endings
83
where are the free nerve endings?
Located on surface of body (exteroceptors) and deep in visceral organs (interoceptors/visceroceptors)
84
free nerve endings detect _________
Detect pain, temperature, and tactile sensation
85
Encapsulated nerve endings
- Structure includes some type of connective tissue capsule that surrounds dendritic end of receptor
- Most often activated by a mechanical (deforming) type of stimulus
86
what are the 2 categories that the encapsulated nerve endings are divided into?
- touch and pressure receptors
| - stretch receptors
87
what is olfaction?
sence of smell
88
what are the chemoreceptors in the sense of smell called?
olfactory receptors
89
what senses different chemicals in the sence of smell?
cilia located on olfactory sensory neurons that touch the olfactory epithelium
90
what is the travel path to determine the sense of smell?
- The chemical message generates a nerve impulse that travels though the olfactory nerves
- The nerve impulse enters the thalamus for relay to the olfactory centres in the cortex for interpretation
- Olfactory receptors are extremely sensitive and easily fatigued (recall adaptation)
91
what is gustatory?
taste
92
what are the chemoreceptors called for gustatory?
gustatory cells (located buds)
93
what are the 5 taste buds responses?
sour, sweet, bitter, salty, and umami
94
what dulls taste sensations?
Nasal congestion interferes with stimulation of olfactory receptors
95
what senses work together?
Gustatory and olfactory senses work together
96
what is the travel path to determine sense of taste?
facial cranial nerve and glossopharyngeal cranial nerve carry gustatory impulses to medulla oblongata to thalamus and gustatory area of the cerebral cortex in the parietal lobe of the brain
97
what are the receptors for the ear?
mechanoreceptors
98
what are the 2 divisions of the ear?
- auricle
| - external acoustic meatus
99
what is the auricle?
the visible portion of the ear
100
what is the external acoustic meatus?
tube leading from the auricle into the temporal bone and ending at the tympanic membrane (ear drum). Contains ceruminous glands
101
what are the 3 bones of the middle ear?
- malleus
- incus
- stapes
102
what is the malleus?
(hammer)—attached to the inner surface of the tympanic membrane (ear drum)
103
what is the Incus?
(anvil)—attached to the malleus and stapes
104
what is the stapes?
(stirrup)—attached to the incus; fits into oval window
105
where does the middle ear end?
in the oval window
106
what attaches the ear to the throat?
the auditory (eustachian)
107
what is Otitis Media?
middle ear infection
108
what is the round window?
opening into inner ear
109
What does the inner ear contain?
a bony labyrinth which surrounds a membranous labyrinth
110
what are the 3 structures the inner ear contains?
- vestibule
- semicircular canals
- cochlea
111
what structures involve balance in the ear?
the vestibule and semicircular canals
112
what 2 membrane sacs are in the membranous labyrinth?
utricle and saccule
113
what are the 2 fluids of the inner ear?
- perilymph
| - endolymph
114
where is the perilymph found?
Fills the space between the membranous labyrinth and the bony labyrinth
115
where is the endolymph found?
Inside membranous labyrinth
| Clear; potassium rich
116
what is the cochlear duct?
Triangular shaped tube, filled with endolymph, that lies inside the cochlea
117
what contains the organ of Corti?
Cochlear duct
118
what Divides the cochlea into and upper and lower section that are filled with perilymph?
cochlear duct
119
sound is created by ________
vibrations
120
look at the path of hearing to the brain
CH. 24 slide 21
121
what are the otolith organs?
Two membranous sac-shaped structures in the vestibule, the utricle and the saccule, play an important role in equilibrium and balance
122
what each contains a macula?
utricle and saccule
123
what does maculae contain?
contain receptor hair cells covered by a gelatinous membrane that contains particles of calcium carbonate called otoliths
124
how do we get a sense of balance?
Movement of the head cause the otoliths to move, which stimulates the hair cells of the macula, which then stimulate the vestibular nerve
The vestibular nerve then conducts impulses to the brain and produces a sensation of the position of the head and also a sensation of a change in the pull of gravity
125
what other structure is involved in balance?
crista ampullaris, located in the semicircular canals
126
what is involved in Static Equilibrium?
Vestibule (utricle & saccule)
127
what is involved in Dynamic Equilibrium?
Semicircular canals (crista ampullaris)
128
what are the 3 structures of the eye?
- sclera
- choroid
- retina
129
what is the sclera?
tough outer coat
“white” of eye
cornea is transparent part of sclera over iris
130
what is the choroid?
pigmented vascular layer prevents scattering of light
| -contains pupils and iris
131
what is the retina?
```
innermost layer of the eye
contains rods (receptors for night vision) and cones (receptors for day vision and color vision)
```
132
what is the conjunctiva?
mucous membrane covering the front surface of the sclera and lining the eyelid
kept moist by tears found in the lacrimal gland
133
what is the lens?
transparent body behind the pupil; focuses light rays on the retina
134
what is Aqueous humor?
eye fluid in the anterior chamber in front of the lens
135
what is vitreous humor?
eye fluid in the posterior chamber behind the lens
136
look at the visual pathway on slides
CH.24 slide 37
137
what is the endocrine system?
Functions carried out by specialized glands that secrete chemicals called hormones into the blood to be carried to target tissues or target organs
138
what are exocrine glands?
```
have ducts
(sweat glands, salivary glands)
```
139
what are endocrine glands?
no ducts
-do not store hormones
secrete hormones directly into the blood
140
what are the 3 hormones classified by general function?
- tropic hormones
- sex hormones
- anabolic hormones
141
what are the 2 hormones classified by chemical structure?
- steroidal hormones (lipid or fat-soluble)
| - non-steroidal hormones (proteins)
142
what are tropic hormones?
target other endocrine glands and stimulate their growth and secretion
143
what are sex hormones?
target reproductive tissues
144
what are anabolic hormones?
stimulate anabolism in target cells
145
how do hormones work?
Hormones signal a cell by binding to the target cell’s specific receptors in a “lock-and-key” mechanism
146
what is synergism?
combinations of hormones acting together have a greater effect on a target cell than the sum of the effects that each would have if acting alone
147
what is permissiveness?
a small amount of one hormone allows a second one to have its full effects on a target cell
148
what is antagonism?
one hormone produces the opposite effects of another hormone; used to “fine tune” the activity of target cells with great accuracy
149
are hormones soluble in water?
no because they are lipids
150
what is a hormone receptor complex?
After the hormone is in the cell, it binds to its specific receptor, found in the nucleus, forming a ‘hormone-receptor complex
151
how long does it take to get a hormone response?
45 minutes to several days
152
Start at slide 13 ch.25 and read to slide 16
!!!!!!!
153
what is a negative feedback?
Mechanisms that reverse the direction of a change in a physiologic system. e.g. insulin and blood sugar balance (most common)
154
what is positive feedback?
(Uncommon) mechanisms that amplify physiologic changes, e.g. oxytocin & labour contractions
155
what is upregulation?
receptors are synthesized faster than they are broken down increased sensitivity
156
what is down regulation?
receptors are broken down faster than they are synthesized/replaced decreased sensitivity
157
what is the pituitary gland also called?
hypophysis
158
what does the pituitary gland do?
Produces or stores the greatest variety of hormones
159
how is the pituitary gland attached?
Attached to the hypothalamus by the infundibulum
160
what is the anterior pituitary gland called?
adenohypophysis
161
what is the posterior pituitary gland called?
neurohypophysis
162
what hormones are located in the Anterior pituitary gland
```
Growth hormone (GH)
Prolactin hormone (PH)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)*
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)*
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)*
Luteinizing hormone (LH)*
```
163
what are tropic hormones?
have a stimulating effect on other
| endocrine glands
164
look at growth hormone ch. 26 slide 7
!!!
165
what is prolactin?
- Also called lactogenic hormone
- Stimulates breast development during pregnancy
- Stimulates secretion of breast milk after the delivery of the baby
166
what is the TSH?
- Acts on thyroid gland
- Promotes and maintains growth & development of the thyroid gland
- Stimulates thyroid to secrete hormones
167
what is the ACTH?
- Acts on adrenal cortex
- Promotes and maintains normal growth & development of the adrenal cortex
- Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete some of its hormones (mainly cortisol)
168
what is the FSH?
Acts on male and female gonads (testes/ovaries)
In females:
stimulates primary follicles of ovary to mature in preparation for ovulation
stimulates follicle cells to secrete estrogen
In males:
stimulates the development of the seminiferous tubules of the testes and maintains tubule’s sperm production
169
what is the LH?
Look on slides (ch.26 slide 11)
170
what is type 1 diabetes?
Islets don’t secrete enough insulin increased blood glucose level
-insulin dependant
171
what is type 2 diabetes?
Combo of decreased insulin production and ‘insulin resistance’ increased blood glucose level
-non-insulin dependant
172
what is glucagon produced by?
alpha cells
173
what is insulin produced by?
beta cells
174
look at ch.26 slide 12 down
!!!!!!!!!
