L3

Question 1

the dynamic, self-regulating process of physiological and/or behavioural feedback control mechanisms to maintain a steady state within a living organism

Answer 1

homeostasis.

Question 2

Homeostasis does not maintain ____ conditions, it restricts conditions within tightly regulated _____ ____ limits.

Answer 2

static, physiological tolerance

Question 3

Homeostatic mechanisms can be _____ or ____.

Answer 3

physiological, behavioural

Question 4

for a system to maintain homeostasis, it requires a ______ _____ (or set point) for the regulated variable, a ___ ___ to detect any deviation from this value, a ____ mechanism for the organism to make changes that return the variable to a normal range, a detection mechanisim to recognize the desired changes and shut down the mobilization process via a ____ _____ loop, and ____

Answer 4

reference value, detection mechansim, mobilization, negative feedback, energy

Question 5

A stimulus causes a change in the variable, which causes an _____. A receptor detects this change, and information about it is sent along an _____ pathway. The ____ ___ compares the information against what value it is supposed to be. The instructions on a response are sent along an ______ pathway. The _____ produces a change in the variable that returns it to homeostasis

Answer 5

imbalance, afferent, control center, efferent, effector

Question 6

In terms of fluid / electrolyte balance, ____ in the brain and body detect fluid imbalances. In the CNS, the ______ releases an _______ hormone (vasopressin), from the _____ _____ gland, which acts on the _____ to induce ___ ____ and generates the urge to drink fluids. In the PNS, the ________ system is activated, which causes -__ to be released from the adrenal glands and act on the kidneys to reabsorb both ___ and ___.

Answer 6

osmoreceptors, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary, kidneys, water retention, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone, aldosterone, water, salt

Question 7

rabbits that live in areas with less sodium such as the ____, have high ____ concentrations and a greater percentage of the ____ ___ in comparison to rabbits with lots of access to sodium

Answer 7

mountains, aldosterone, adrenal cortex

Question 8

_____ causes rats to drink saline water that they would normally not drink

Answer 8

adrenalectomy

Question 9

Food is needed for 2 reasons: first we need it for ____ ____, which we get from amino acids, ____ and _____. This energy is needed to carry out all ___ ____, and is critical for _____ ____. It is also needed for ____ ___ for building structural parts of the body such as the bones, ____ and ___ _____

Answer 9

metabolic fuels, carbohydrates, fats, cellular processes, moment-to-moment, raw materials, muscles, chemical messengers

Question 10

Proteins are needed to build ___ ___, which is used ini protein synthesis in the body

Answer 10

amino acids

Question 11

complex carbohydrates are needed for ____, which is used for energy production in making _____ from ____

Answer 11

glucose, ATP, ADP

Question 12

triglycerides are needed to make ____ and ___ ___, which is needed for ______ ____, and ____

Answer 12

glycerol, fatty acids, lipid synthesis, storage

Question 13

Glucose can be stored as ____ via ______. When energy is needed, glycogen can be broken down back to glucose via _______. Glucose then undergoes _____ to create ATP

Answer 13

glycogen, glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, glycolysis

Question 14

Hormone made by the pancreas that helps glucose get absorbed into the liver, fat, and skeletal muscle cells, which then will convert the glucose into glycogen

Answer 14

insulin

Question 15

peptide hormone secreted from the pancreas that stimulates glucose production in the liver

Answer 15

glucagon

Question 16

Food intake isn’t strictly under homeostatic regulation, but rather controlled in the ____ of homeostatic regulation. For example, feeding patterns and ____ ___ vary among individuals of the same species. Also, food intake relies on feeding, a behaviour that is under ____ ____, while other responses of homeostatic systems are _____.

Answer 16

interests, energy storage, conscious control, autonomic

Question 17

In humans and many other animals, systems of energy balance appear to be _____. The system tolerates / permits _____ ____ ___ that lead to weight gain, but defends strongly against negative energy balances that threaten ____ ____. The body essentially doesn’t possess a clear _____ to sense positive energy balance. This is because energy is required for _____, and ___ favoured development of biological traits associated with an economical _____, as well as preferences for high energy-dense, energy ____ foods.

Answer 17

asymmetrical, positive energy balances, weight loss, mechanism, survival, evolution, metabolism, yielding

Question 18

Eating is _____, and can often be dissociated from ___ ____ factors. Changes occur in response to food, but also during _____ of food intake. Social climate may also encourage individuals to intervene coercively in patterns of feeding behaviours that ____ their own biological processes

Answer 18

episodic, endogenous signalling, anticipation, endanger

Question 19

there are a variety of signalling molecules involved in feeding that make it challenging to tease apart specific ___ of a signalling molecule in behaviour. ____ one hormone does not necessarily yield information on its function

Answer 19

roles, removing

Question 20

insulin, which is released by the pancreatic ____ cells, _____ blood glucose. It is a ___ hormone, and stimulates glucose ___ by cells/ It also triggers ______ while inhibiting _____ and _____. Insulin receptors are expressed in virtually ____ cells

Answer 20

beta, decreases, peptide, uptake, glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, all

Question 21

Glucagon is a ___ hormone released from pancreatic _____ cells. Receptors for it are mainly expressed in the ____ and ____. Glucagon ____ blood glucose concentrations. Increases ______, and _____, while decreasing ___ ___ synthesis in ___ tissue and in the liver

Answer 21

peptide, alpha, liver, kidneys, increases, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis fatty acid, adipose

Question 22

In a well fed state, food is broken down into ___, free ___ ____ and ___ ____. Glucose powers the ___ and ____. insulin is released from the pancreas to facilitate the ____ of glucose. The excess glucose is converted to ____ and stored in the ___ and ____.

Answer 22

glucose, fatty acids, amino acids, brain, muscles, transport, glycogen, liver, muscles

Question 23

In a fasting state, ____ is released from the pancreas, which facilitates _____, to break down stores glycogen in the liver. _____ in adipose tissue releases the free fatty acids and _____. The liberated glucose and ___ bodies powers the brain

Answer 23

glucagon, glycogenolysis, lipolysis, glycerol, ketone

Question 24

the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus regulates ____ response and the _____, as well as _____ and ____ intake

Answer 24

stress, thyroid, osmoregulation, food

Question 25

the lateral hypothalamus is involved in ___, ____ and ____

Answer 25

arousal, feeding, reward

Question 26

the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus is involved in ____ balance, ____ and ___ ___ release

Answer 26

energy, reproduction, growth hormone

Question 27

The AgRP/NPY neurons are cells of the ___ ___ that co-express ______ protein, and _____ __. They inhibit the ____ neurons of the PVN, and excite the _____ neurons of the ___.

Answer 27

arcuate nucleus, agouti-related, neuropeptide Y, anorexigenic, PVN, orexigenic, PFA

Question 28

POMC/CART neurons of the ___ ____, are cells that co-express _______, and the ____ ____ _____ ____ ____ (CART). These ____ anorexigenic neurons in the PVN

Answer 28

arcuate nucleus, pre-opiomelanocortin, cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript, excite

Question 29

stimulation of ___. neurons with optogenetics induces eating in a rat

Answer 29

orexigenic

Question 30

The arcuate nucleus is also modulated by hormones like ____ (pancreas) ____ (gut), and _____ (adipose tissue)

Answer 30

insulin, ghrelin, leptin

Question 31

the gut-derived hormones indicate a _____ nutritional status. All of them also ____ food intake, in other words, serve as ____ signals. However, the exception is ____

Answer 31

short-term, reduce, satiety, ghrelin

Question 32

Ghrelin is a _____ hormone, that peaks in blood concentration at the ___ of a meal. Systemic injections ______ food intake and increased ___ ___ in humans and rats. Ghrelin-releasing hormones send axons to the _____ and stimulate _____ /____ neurons in the ____ ____, enhancing their inhibition on ____ neurons in the PVN

Answer 32

peptide, onset, increase, body mass, hypothalamus, ArGP/NYP, arcuate nucleus, anorexigenic

Question 33

adipose tissue hormones provide ____ information on nutrition status. They stimulate the ______ feeding circuit and inhibit the ____ feeding circuit, resulting in a net ____ of food intake.

Answer 33

long-term, inhibitory, stimulatory, decrease

Question 34

a hormone protein released by adipose tissue; it serves as a satiety signal and starvation signal

Answer 34

leptin

Question 35

leptin deficient (___/___) mice and leptin receptor deficient (____/___) mice are commonly used models of ___ and type ____ ___.

Answer 35

ob/ob, db/db. obesity, II diabetes

Question 36

when fat is metabolized to provide _____, blood leptin ____ disproportionately more than fat levels, which provides a salient ______ signal

Answer 36

energy, decreases, starvation

Question 37

active during the light

Answer 37

diurnal

Question 38

nocturnal

Answer 38

active during the dark

Question 39

virtually all ___, ___ and ___ processes show some circadian rhythmicity, which allows the organism to ____ with the environment so that energy is not expended to ___ against it

Answer 39

biological, physiological, behavioural, synchronize, fight

Question 40

cue that an animal uses to synchronize with the environment

Answer 40

zeitgeber

Question 41

Most of the time, rodents are active on their wheel in the ____. Reversing the light dark cycle will ____ the time the rats are on the wheel (___ ___). Putting the rats in continuous darkness will produce a ______ sleep/wake cycle. Similar results are shown for mice for a ____ cycle.

Answer 41

dark, reverse, phase shift, disorganized, drinking

Question 42

synchronization / alignment of internal biological rhythms to the environment

Answer 42

entrainment

Question 43

animals will exhibit sleep-wake _____ in the absence of any ____ cues. In other words, removing a ____ will still produce a _____ cycle period, but it may not be 24 hours in exact time.

Answer 43

pattern, external, zeitgeber, successive

Question 44

large lesions of the ____ interfere with circadian rhythms, and produce a pattern similar to that seen with a ____ light.

Answer 44

hypothalamus, constant

Question 45

lesions of the ______ ____ abolishes the circadian ____ without affecting the amount of sleep/wake/drink ____. In other words, there are ____ points of wake/sleep and no periods of them

Answer 45

suprachiasmatic nucleus, periodicity, bouts, random

Question 46

When in light conditions, the ___ in the eyes detect light, and these cells release ____ onto neurons in the ____. ___% of the neurons of the SCN are light responsive. This will activate the transcription of ____ and _____. These proteins work in complex negative and positive gene regulatory loops to coordinate the ___ ____. The light induced activation of the SCN also prevents the production of ____ by the ____ gland

Answer 46

photoreceptors, glutamate, SCN, 30, PER1, PER2, circadian clock, melatonin, pineal

Question 47

The SCN is also important for the modulation of ____ and ____

Answer 47

corticoids, testosterone

Question 48

food can also be an entrainer of the _____ circadian rhythm. When food is abundant, the _____ cycle is the most important cue to entrain the _____ circadian rhythm. If food resources are ____, food becomes the most important cue. When food is normally given, glucocorticoid levels are highest at _____. When food is given only in the morning, glucocorticoids peak in the ___ instead. When food is given at a specific time in the evening, glucocorticoids are highest at that ____ ___.

Answer 48

glucocorticoid, light-dark corticosterone, scarce, night, morning, specific time