Lecture for Chapter 11

Question 1

Does human reasoning follow logic?

Answer 1

Humans are an illogical race. We are complex involving the unconscious and emotions.

Question 2

What would idealized reasoning look like?

Answer 2

Formal logic, normative vs descriptive reality. People don’t use ideal reasoning.

Question 3

For judgement involving the frequency of events or probability _______ is crucial.

Answer 3

memory

Question 4

People use the availability heuristic to judge ________. If something is readily available it is likely more common.

Answer 4

frequency

Question 5

The effect of memory being better for things that stand out and are distinct, isolated, unique or bizarre is called _________.

Answer 5

The von Restorff effect

Question 6

__________ can be useful but it is not always accurate. The media underreport some types of deaths and over report other types this results in people overestimating the _________ of murders b/c they are talked about

Answer 6

The availability heuristic

frequency

Question 7

When looking for evidence we look at event _______ by using the availability heuristic. What is available is influenced by __________

Answer 7

frequency

memory

Question 8

The difficulty people have putting aside their original estimates is the result of _______

Answer 8

anchoring and adjustment

Question 9

In a factorial math question pple use the first number as an anchor. So they estimate _______ for 1x2x3x4… than for 9x8x7x6…

Answer 9

lower

Question 10

When pple asked whether something was shorter or smaller than a range followed by having to estimate the exact length. The _____ affect their estimate. This is an example of ________

Answer 10

given range

adjustment

Question 11

When showing houses the initial impression can drive up the price of the whole rest of the house. This is called_____

Answer 11

curve appeal

Question 12

The assumption of homogeneity assumes that each member of a category is representative of that category. This is called __________

Answer 12

The representative heuristic

Question 13

An example of the representative heuristic is_________

Answer 13

stereotypes

Question 14

The use of prototypical examples rather than probability as a basis of judgement is called_____________

Answer 14

Conjunction Fallacy

Question 15

When told that Tom enjoys poetry and reading followed by the question: Is Tom more likely to be a professor or a Truck Driver,
What will pple choose, why and why is it probably inaccurate?

Answer 15

pple will choose professor b/c the description is representative of a professor. This is probably inaccurate based on the fact that there are many more truck drivers than professors therefore probability wise it is more likely he is a truck driver

Question 16

Describe the Sunk Cost Fallacy:

Answer 16

Pple will generally go to a more expensive concert rather than a cheap one they might enjoy more b/c they’ve already put money into it.

Question 17

If Sally puts $2 into the pop machine and no money comes out, theoretically what should she logically do, what is she likely to do?

Answer 17

Theoretically she shouldn’t put anymore money in, following the sunk cost fallacy it is likely she will put more money in b/c she already invested $2

Question 18

Another name for the sunk cost fallacy is ___________

Answer 18

The concord fallacy

Question 19

The belief that prior outomes of a probabilistic event impact the future outcome in the short run is called_____________

Answer 19

The gamblers fallacy

Question 20

Billy believes that he shouldn’t fly on the airline with the best safety record b/c it is due for a crash. Billy is following the _____________

Answer 20

Gamblers Fallacy

Question 21

What is the law of large #s?

Answer 21

Things do tend to even out over many trials but this effect doesn’t extend to small samples.

Question 22

Reasoning from a single case, the “man who” arguement is based on the assumption of ____________.

Answer 22

homogeneity

Question 23

Ruth is debating buying an iphone, she read many reviews and saw that they are the highest rated phone for her needs. On her way to the store to buy it her daughter tells her that someone she knows just bought one and it stopped working the next day? If Ruth buys the phone anyway she is overcoming______________.

Answer 23

The representative heuristic and “man who” argument. Ruth reasoned correctly that just b/c one case was like that doesn’t mean that every member of that category is like that. She chose to use statistical probability rather than one persons experience

Question 24

After the fact people think that they would have know something before the fact when really they wouldn’t, this is ____________

Answer 24

hindsight bias

Question 25

Describe the medical practitioner experiment showing hindsight bias:

Answer 25

Doctors were split into groups and either told the diagnosis/ or not. Those told the diagnoses were told to ignore it while assigning probabilites of a diagnoses to a patient's case file.

Question 26

The results of the medical practitioner experiment showed that doctors who knew the diagnosis assigned probabilities of the diagnoses ____ times higher than those who didn't. This is an example of ___________

Answer 26

3 times | hindsight bias

Question 27

Describe the better than average effect:

Answer 27

pple on average, think they are better than average

Question 28

What group of people is an exception to the the better than average effect?

Answer 28

The clinically depressed don't show this effect and are the most accurately calibrated

Question 29

____________ is crucial for reasoning whether something has an effect or not, and whether it is possible to make decision about something based on another factor.

Answer 29

covariation

Question 30

T or F: People are objective when it comes to covariation, and the Rorchach test is an example of this

Answer 30

False - people project there prior theories into data. Given the Rochach test people believed more homosexuals saw butts even though this was impossible through random assignments of drawings to pple

Question 31

When a person has no prior expectations or beliefs about data being judged they have ________ and ________ in estimates. When the correlation is less strong estimates are _____. The results are _________. The graph looks ______ like an objective correlation.

Answer 31

systematic and conservative low Data driven more

Question 32

When participants have prior expectations or beliefs about the thing being judged, estimates are ____________ and ___________. In this type of ___________ estimates, estimates are all on the ______ side of the objective curve.

Answer 32

inaccurate and variable theory driven upper

Question 33

What two techniques do people use to detect covariation?

Answer 33

1) confirmation bias | 2) Memory schemata

Question 34

Describe confirmation bias:

Answer 34

Pple only look at a subset of evidence. They pay attention to evidence hat confirms their belief and ignore counter examples.

Question 35

Describe Memory schemata:

Answer 35

A schemata helps you remember what fits within your prior beliefs. Counter examples that don't fit are forgotten.

Question 36

One fundemental statistic property of the universe that pple fail to account for is __________. This means that when you get an extreme sample, the next example is likely to be closer to average.

Answer 36

Regression towards the mean.

Question 37

________ is responsible for the sports illustrated cover curse.

Answer 37

Regression towards the mean

Question 38

T or F: Regression towards the mean can be seen based on individuals and individual events

Answer 38

False it refers to groups

Question 39

What is a base rate?

Answer 39

The actual number that exists in the world. People don't normally ask "out of how many"

Question 40

When given a choice pple tend to _________ representativeness and _______ baserates.

Answer 40

favour | ignore

Question 41

People understand base rates better if they are given in the form of _________.

Answer 41

frequency

Question 42

T or F: People can use base rates

Answer 42

True - if just given a base rate they will use it. However if given both diagnostic info and baserates pple will use the diagnostic info (ex. categories, stereotypes and heuristics)

Question 43

Describe the dual system hypothesis:

Answer 43

Two systems are used for judgments - system 1 is based on heuristics, system 2 is less biased but more effortful. Something must trigger system 2.

Question 44

What are possible ways of triggering system 2?

Answer 44

- framing effects | - triggering statistical knowledge

Question 45

The testing and adjusting of our beliefs is otherwise known as _______

Answer 45

reasoning

Question 46

The logical ideal of reasoning uses logic, rational thinking and _______. What people actually use is biases, _______, errors, irrational thinking and _______reasoning.

Answer 46

utility theory heuristics pragmatic

Question 47

T or F: Both novices and experts are more confident in their judgements then is justifiable

Answer 47

True -this is overconfidence

Question 48

Define belief perseverence:

Answer 48

We don't want to let go of beliefs, even in the face of strong evidence.

Question 49

When pple test hypothesis by choosing tests that confirm rather than disconfirm them they are using ___________bias. This is seen in the _____________

Answer 49

confirmation | watson's four card task

Question 50

A _________________ is a form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise a minor premise and a conclusion. For example: All humans are moral - I am human- therefore I am moral is an example of a valid premise

Answer 50

Categorical syllogism

Question 51

A syllogism that begins with an if-then structure is called a __________. There are two types of these syllogisms _______ and _________.

Answer 51

Conditional syllogism | Modus ponens and modus tollens

Question 52

The type of syllogism that is affirming the antecedent is called_________ ex. If P (antecedent), then Q (consequence) P Therefore Q

Answer 52

Modus Ponens

Question 53

The type of syllogism that is denying the consequent is called __________. ex. If P (antecedent), then Q (consequent) Not P Therefore not Q

Answer 53

Modus Tollens

Question 54

Modus Ponens (affirming the antecedent) and Modus Tonens (denying the consequent) are both valid. Invalid versions include denying the antecedent, this error is called ___________ and affirming the consequence, called an ____________ error. People often assume these conditional syllogisms are _________ when they aren't.

Answer 54

inverse error conserve error bidirectional

Question 55

Describe Watson's Four card task:

Answer 55

People must test the statement " if a card has a vowel on one side it must have an even number on the other side" - They are shown four cards A 6 J 7 - but can only flip two.

Question 56

A 6 J 7 -Only ___% of pple correctly complete Watson's four card task. Most people display confirmation bias and pick _____ and ______. They successfully flip ___ to affirm the antecedent and complete the ________ aspect but fail to flip _____ to deny the consequent and show _________ aspect of the logic.

Answer 56

7% A and 6 A - Modus Ponens 7 - Modus Tolens

Question 57

T or F: people are good at solving categorical and conditional syllogisms

Answer 57

False

Question 58

What are three types of errors people make when solving syllogisms?

Answer 58

1) Belief bias 2) Atmosphere errors 3) Conversion errors

Question 59

If the premise uses the word " all " pple are more likely to accept a conclusion using the word all. This is an example of _________.

Answer 59

Atmosphere errors - the conclusion seems more appropriate given the context

Question 60

_________ is the fact that if people believe the conclusion they tend to think that the argument is more valid and vice versa

Answer 60

Belief bias

Question 61

When people treat all As are Bs as meaning all Bs are As or some As are Bs as meaning some Bs are As, this is an example of a _____________

Answer 61

conversion error

Question 62

People do slightly better on syllogisms when they are using __________. This is due to _______________ schemata, rather than if-then rules this type of schemata uses permissions and cause and effect. The effectiveness of this schemata can be seen in peoples improvements in Watson's four card task when it is given in the form of _________.

Answer 62

concrete examples pragmatic reasoning train tickets

Question 63

Logic problems are _________ problems and people reason using either a necessity or sufficiency interpretation can lead to illogical reasoning.

Answer 63

sufficiency

Question 64

T or F: Formal training in logic helps to improve logical thinking

Answer 64

False - Training in use of reasoning schemata can help.

Question 65

Training in the use of reasoning schemata can help solve logic problems b/c hey can help you learn to interpret whether it is a ________ vs_______problem and help trigger examples of _______ examples through pragmatic reasoning schema that help you deal with ________ideas

Answer 65

necessity vs sufficiency concrete familiar examples abstract ideas

Question 66

Describe utility theory:

Answer 66

Every choice has costs and benefits when making a decision we weigh the costs and benefits and pick the option that minimizes costs and maximizes benefits, it is very objective way of making decisions

Question 67

What are problems and complications with utility theory?

Answer 67

1) Subjective utility 2) uncertainty 3) the certainty effect 4) non-transitive relationships 5) mental accounting

Question 68

T or F: Sometimes costs and benefits are hard to compare

Answer 68

True

Question 69

_________ refers to the value something has for you. Things can also have negative value, this is called _________

Answer 69

subjective | disutility

Question 70

The possibility that things could change in the future changing valuess is the complication called ________

Answer 70

uncertainty

Question 71

The certainty effect is the idea that people _________, this belief violates utility theory all the time

Answer 71

sure gains

Question 72

Non-transitive relationships are _______ according to utility theory. Yet we see these circular relationships all the time ex. Prefer large room to cheap, close to school to large, cheap to close to school

Answer 72

irrational

Question 73

_______________is the idea that Psychological accounting isn't the same as dollar value. For ex. someone might drive across town for $20 off $100 but not for $20 off $10 000.

Answer 73

Mental accounting

Question 74

What is the calculation for expected utility?

Answer 74

Expected utility= (probability of outcome) x (utility of outcome)

Question 75

The fact that people are more likely to want $20 now vs $25 in two weeks but are more likely to want $25 in 54 weeks vs $20 in 52 weeks, shows that _________ also works for delayed gratification

Answer 75

mental accounting

Question 76

T or F: People are utility maximizers

Answer 76

False

Question 77

Describe the effect of framing effects:

Answer 77

people flip flop b/w decision producing contradictions when different framing effects are used.

Question 78

When framing effects deal with possible losses, decisions are ______. When framing effects deal with possible gains decisions are________.

Answer 78

risk seeking | risk averse

Question 79

The idea that values are assigned to gains and losses and that choice varies by framing of the problem is called __________. This theory is evidence for _________.

Answer 79

prospect theory | loss aversion

Question 80

Loss aversions is the idea that when given a choice between_______ and __________. People prefer to __________.

Answer 80

avoiding loss acquiring gains avoid loss

Question 81

According to utility theory is ________ make sense to pay attention to sunk costs but ________.

Answer 81

doesn't | still do

Question 82

__________reasoning is the idea that you don't want to give up something you already have.

Answer 82

sunk cost

Question 83

Lost of our decisions don't have to do with "rational assessment or how to maximize utility theory instead we make ____________

Answer 83

justifiable decisions

Question 84

Describe Regret theory:

Answer 84

Avoiding regret is a big motivator. we overestimate what we will feel when forcasting our emotions. We like things to get better over time.

Question 85

T or F: People prefer keeping their hand immersed in super cold water 4 degrees for 60sec and fairly cold water 5 degrees for 30sec rather than just 60sec of super cold 4 degree water.

Answer 85

True- this is part of regret theory

Question 86

If people are given $10 to divide with a partner and if both agree they get to keep the money, rationally the partner should accept _________ but people tend to divide the money ___________.

Answer 86

anything more than zero | evenly

Question 87

Often peoples decisions are based on _______ as opposed to rationality

Answer 87

fairness

Question 88

Sometimes it is foolish to seek the optimal decision because it __________ then it is worth. It is sensible to compromise and sacrifice optimal decisions for more _______decisions

Answer 88

more time | efficient

Question 89

Describe the tragedy of the commons: | Rationally they should______ but____________

Answer 89

A community whose sheep graxe on common land. If everyone protects the commons they will be protected and sustainable but no single person can do this on their own b/c others greed would just exhaust what was left. Rationally they should compete but sometimes collective decision making is better than rational