Paper 2 Review

Question 1

pro-social behavior

Answer 1

behavior that benefits another person or has positive social consequences

Question 2

altruism

Answer 2

helping a person for no reward, and even at some cost to oneself

Question 3

Prisoner’s Dilemma Study date

Answer 3

Axelrod and Hamilton, 1981

Question 4

Prisoner’s Dilemma Study method

Answer 4

two individuals play a game where if they both do not confess they are rewarded. If they both cooperate, then neither get a big payoff. But if only one confesses, then they get more than the other person

Question 5

Prisoner’s Dilemma Study findings

Answer 5

when players play 1 round, they are more likely to cooperate to increase their own survival. But when multiple rounds are played, they eventually respond by mimicking their opponent’s last move

Question 6

Prisoner’s Dilemma Study conclusion

Answer 6

they may mimic the last move because they learn that their behavior will be reciprocated, i.e. they are nice to gain something (pro-social)

Question 7

empathy altruism

Answer 7

when people see someone suffering they experience 1 of 2 emotions:

1. personal distress: anxiety or fear, which leads to egoistic helping
2. empathy concerns: sympathy or compassion, which leads to altruism

Question 8

egoistic helping

Answer 8

weighing the costs and benefits of helping (pro-social behavior)

Question 9

Carol Study date

Answer 9

Batson, 1981

Question 10

Carol Study method

Answer 10

students listened to an interview of a student named Carol who had broken her leg in a car accident and needed the class notes. Some groups were told to focus on Carol’s feelings (empathy) and within those groups people were told that Carol would return to class, while others were told she wouldn’t (cost)

Question 11

Carol Study findings

Answer 11

high empathy groups helped no matter the cost. low empathy groups only helped if cost of not helping was high

Question 12

Carol Study conclusion

Answer 12

confirms that behavior based on empathy is unselfish, i.e. altruistic

Question 13

Evolutionary (biological) explanations for altruism

Answer 13

reciprocal altruism theory: based on the idea that it may be beneficial to an animal’s survival to behave altruistically if there is an expectation that the favor will be returned in the future

Question 14

Prisoner’s Dilemma Study evaluation

Answer 14

it is questionable whether animal behavior can be generalized to humans, specifically because humans are influenced by culture and conscious thought; does not explain altruistic acts that do not benefit our kin or occur without expectations of reciprocity

Question 15

psychological explanations for altruism

Answer 15

empathy altruism

Question 16

Carol Study evaluation

Answer 16

research supports this model; only short term altruism has been tested; personality factors have not been taken into account; difficult to measure levels of empathy; does not explain if empathy is biological based or learned

Question 17

Cross Cultural Pen study date

Answer 17

Levine

Question 18

Cross Cultural Pen study aim

Answer 18

to determine how many passing pedestrians would help a neatly dressed college age male pick up his dropped pen

Question 19

Cross Cultural Pen study methods

Answer 19

the experimenter would reach into his pocket while walking and “accidentally” drop his pen

Question 20

Cross Cultural Pen study findings

Answer 20

there were definite differences between cultures; worldwide, Latin American cities were the most helpful

Question 21

Cross Cultural Children study date

Answer 21

Graves and Graves, 1985

Question 22

Cross Cultural Children study

Answer 22

helping was least likely in communities where children had completed school and didn’t have many chores; caring for younger children provides an opportunity for pro-social behavior for modeling and social norms

Question 23

culture on pro-social behavior

Answer 23

research supports the idea that culture plays a role in one’s likelihood to help in some situations

Question 24

social identity theory

Answer 24

personal identity involves personal accomplishments; we are more likely to help people of our own ethnic groups

Question 25

Asian v. American culture study date

Answer 25

Bond and Leung, 1988

Question 26

Asian v. American Culture study

Answer 26

Chinese and Japanese offered more help to those in their in-groups, but US people offered more help to those in out-groups

Question 27

bystanderism

Answer 27

the phenomenon that an individual is less likely to help in an emergency situation when positive and passive bystanders are present

Question 28

factors that influence helping

Answer 28

1. whether others offer assistance
2. whether others are present
3. ambiguity
4. religious devotion
5. social norms

Question 29

diffusion of responsibility

Answer 29

people are less likely to help when they believe others are present because it reduces the psychological cost (guilt or stress) of not helping

Question 30

Bystanderism experiment date

Answer 30

Darley and Latane, 1968

Question 31

Bystanderism experiment method

Answer 31

student participants were interviewed over sitcom. some where told there were 5 other people, some 2 and some 1. Then someone in the group had a seizure and it was observed whether people helped

Question 32

Bystanderism experiment findings

Answer 32

85% rushed to help when they thought they were the only person; 31% got up when they thought there were others in the group

Question 33

Bystanderism experiment problems

Answer 33

many thought it was fake because the victim couldn’t be seen; all participants were psych students; ethical concerns of participant stress

Question 34

pluralistic ignorance

Answer 34

if the situation is ambiguous and other people aren’t reacting to what seems to be an emergency, then others are less likely to help

Question 35

arousal cost reward model

Answer 35

in emergency and non-emergency situations we are motivated to help people as a way of reducing unpleasant feelings such as disgust, fear and anxiety, which can all be increased by a person’s proximity to the emergency, empathy and the amount of time an emergency continues for

Question 36

arousal cost reward model costs and rewards

Answer 36

cost of helping: effort, embarrassment, possible physical harm
cost of not helping: self blame and perceived censure from others
reward for helping: praise from self, onlookers and victim
reward for not helping: getting on with one’s own business, not incurring possible costs of helping

Question 37

Helping Behavior in NY Subway method

Answer 37

participants were travelers who were opportunity sampled between 11-3. While on a nonstop journey they witnessed either a man with a cane who appeared ill falling to the floor or a man who smelled of alcohol and appeared drunk falling to the floor

Question 38

Helping Behavior in NY Subway findings

Answer 38

100% of people offered to help within 5 seconds for scenario 1; 81% of people offered to help within 109 seconds

Question 39

Helping Behavior in NY Subway and arousal cost reward model

Answer 39

supports arousal cost reward model because helping a drunk has greater perceived costs; no one blames someone for not helping a drunk because drunk is perceived as partly responsible for their own victimization

Question 40

Helping Behavior in NY Subway evaluation

Answer 40

high ecological validity; low amount of control; lots of detailed data collected

Question 41

stressors

Answer 41

stimuli that we appraise as threatening or challenging–is cumulative and can add up

Question 42

type of stressor: frustration

Answer 42

when the pursuit of some goal is thwarted

Question 43

type of stressor: conflict

Answer 43

when 2 or more incompatible motivations or behavioral impulses compete for expression

Question 44

type of stressor: life changes

Answer 44

even when changes are welcome they can cause stress because they require readjustment

Question 45

type of stressor: pressure

Answer 45

expectations demand that one behave in a certain way

Question 46

approach-approach conflict

Answer 46

choice between 2 attractive goals

Question 47

avoidance-avoidance conflict

Answer 47

choice between 2 unattractive goals

Question 48

approach-avoidance conflict

Answer 48

one choice has both attractive and unattractive aspects

Question 49

transactional model of stress date

Answer 49

Lazarus and Folkman, 1975

Question 50

transactional model of stress

Answer 50

stress involves a transaction between the individual and the external word and it assess the threat and the resources to deal with it

Question 51

transactional model of stress components

Answer 51

primary appraisal: is the situation positive, negative or irrelevant?
secondary appraisal: consideration/evaluation of available coping strategies

Question 52

coping strategies

Answer 52

problem-focused: change the situation

emotion-focused: maladaptive techniques, relaxation, talking to others

Question 53

stress inoculation training (MBSR)

Answer 53

helps people reinterpret events as less stressful and put coping behaviors into action

Question 54

stress inoculation training steps

Answer 54

1. therapeutic alliance and psychoeducation: education, goal setting and identifying triggers
2. application training: rehearsal and exposure
3. application and follow through

Question 55

stress inoculation training evaluation

Answer 55

takes time to implement; difficult to change learned routines and habits; treats the root of the stress

Question 56

Tend and Befriend theory date

Answer 56

Taylor, 2002

Question 57

Tend and Befriend theory

Answer 57

the male stress response if fight or flight and is triggered by testosterone; the female stress response id tend and befriend, triggered by oxytocin

Question 58

physiological responses to stress

Answer 58

fight or flight, but most stressors require a more complex response

Question 59

general adaptation syndrome date

Answer 59

Seyle, 1956

Question 60

general adaptation syndrome

Answer 60

a model of the body’s stress response

Question 61

general adaptation syndrome components

Answer 61

1. alarm: first recognition of the threat–fight or flight stimulated
2. resistance: after prolonged stress physical changes stabilize as coping efforts get underway (reverses alarm stage)
3. exhaustion: the body’s resources are limited and panic decrease and resistance declines

Question 62

general adaptation syndrome evaluation

Answer 62

explains extreme fatigue after long periods of stress; does not account for physiological factors involved

Question 63

T-cell study date

Answer 63

Kilcott-Glaser, 1984

Question 64

T-cell study

Answer 64

medical students on the first day of class v. the final day of class had lower t-cell counts

Question 65

other physiological effects

Answer 65

high blood pressure, ulcers, migraines and gastrointestinal problems

Question 66

cortisol

Answer 66

the release of cortisol (occurs when stressed) is bad for the heart and memory

Question 67

psychological factors

Answer 67

appraisal is important

Question 68

Optimism study date

Answer 68

Reed, 1999

Question 69

Optimism study

Answer 69

those who were more optimistic survived longer with AIDS; outlook can’t cure a disease but it may prolong life

Question 70

Personality can contribute to stress

Answer 70

Type A: strong, competitive, impatient, self-imposed stress, workaholics
Type B: relaxed, patient, easygoing, amenable, less hurried

Question 71

other psychological responses

Answer 71

poor concentration, poor task performance, memory issues and impaired judgement

Question 72

associated disorders

Answer 72

anxiety disorders, insomnia and nightmares: stress heightens likelihood of disorders–Stress Diathesis Model

Question 73

burnout

Answer 73

physical and emotional exhaustion