PSY395 Exam 3

Question 1

Population

Answer 1

Aggregate of all of the cases that conform to some designated set of specifications.

Question 2

Stratum

Answer 2

One or more specifications that divide a population into mutually exclusive segments.

Question 3

Population element

Answer 3

A single member of a population.

Question 4

Census

Answer 4

A count of all the elements in a population.

Question 5

Sample

Answer 5

A subset of the population.

Question 6

Probability Sampling

Answer 6

One can specify for each element of the population the probability that it will be included in he sample.

Question 7

Non-probability Sampling

Answer 7

No way to estimate the probability each element has of being included in the sample and no assurance that every element has some chance of being included.

Question 8

Simple Random Sampling

Answer 8

A process that gives each element in the population an equal chance of being included in the sample, but also every combination of the desired number of cases equally likely.

Question 9

Representative sampling plan

Answer 9

A plan that ensures the odds are great enough so that the selected sample is sufficiently representative of the population.

Question 10

Stratified sampling

Answer 10

Divide the population into two or more strata and then take a simple random sample form from each stratum.

Question 11

Cluster sampling

Answer 11

Groups or sets of elements using simple or stratified sampling, then randomly choose a cluster.

Question 12

Accidental Sampling

Answer 12

Using cases at hand as a sample.

-convenience

Question 13

Quota Sampling

Answer 13

A selection of a sample that is a replica of the population to which one wants to generalize. But, uses a convenience sample to meet the quota.

Question 14

Purposive Sampling

Answer 14

Handpicking cases to be included in the sample.

• following an election district that in the past has been predictive of the election.
• Milgram studies

Question 15

Snowball Sampling

Answer 15

A small initial sample :snowballs: into a sample large enough to meet the requirements of research design and data analysis.
Hard to get groups/samples (drug users).

Question 16

Self-report methods

Answer 16

Any instrument that asks people to report their own attitudes, feelings, perceptions and beliefs.

Question 17

Goal of designing a study

Answer 17

Measure….

• Attitudes and beliefs?
  
  • -political attitudes
  • -consumer satisfaction
• Facts and demographics?
  
  • -age/gender/ethnicity
  • -“Does the sun revolve around the earth?”
• Behaviors?
  
  • -How often do you exercise/go to church?

Question 18

Wording Problems on Surveys

Answer 18

Question wording, question order

Identity of survey taker/interviewer

Question 19

Simple wording changes

Answer 19

Loftus & Palmer, 1974

‘homosexuals’ vs ‘gay man and lesbians’

Question 20

Anchoring

Answer 20

Final judgments and behaviors are assimilated or become more similar to an initial anchor value.

Question 21

Jargon/slang

Answer 21

Do you have a family history of cerebrovascular accident? Stroke. It’s a fucking stroke.

Question 22

Double-Barreled Questions

Answer 22

Avoid asking multiple things at once
pay AND job conditions
interesting AND useful

Question 23

Loaded (Leading) Questions

Answer 23

Designed to elicit a certain response.

-Should the mayor spend more tax money to keep the city’s excellent streets in super shape?

Question 24

Double-Negatives

Answer 24

Does it seem possible or does it seem impossible to you that the Nazi extermination of the Jews never happened?
–Affirmative response because of confusion about the word ‘never’ here mixed with impossible
Does it seem possible to you that the Nazi extermination of the Jews never happened, or do you feel certain that it happened?
–Only 1% reported that it might not have happened.

Question 25

Negative Wording

Answer 25

Questions where agreement means disagreement | -Do you think that Congress should not pass a new gun control law?

Question 26

Questions that assume an answer to the question they ask

Answer 26

There are many people who believe that campus parking is a problem. Are you one of them?

Question 27

Question Order Problems

Answer 27

Contrast Effect: order results in greater differences in responses Assimilation effect: responses are more similar as a result of their order Context effect: could get very different answers to question about "How satisfied are you with your life?"

Question 28

Identity of Survey Taker

Answer 28

A black vs. white interviewer asking about racial attitudes | -More likely to get socially desirable responses, not honest ones for certain combinations

Question 29

Acquiescence Response Bias

Answer 29

Tendency to check the same response category in a series of similar questions (yea-sayers, nay-sayers) -Resolve by including some reverse-coded items

Question 30

Socially-desirable responding

Answer 30

Responding to look good, not to respond accurately. - Increase/ensure anonymity - Add inducements for accurate reporting (Bogus Pipeline - trick into believing researcher can read true feelings) - Include filler items to Mask/Obscure true purpose - Include catch items ('I have never lied') - Cross check with Behavior measures (self-reports) - Avoid self-reports altogether (instead use implicit/covert measures - the measurements of attitudes using unobtrusive techniques like physiological measures or behavioral observations)

Question 31

Open-ended Question

Answer 31

Requires an unstructured, free response - Rorschach - Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - --unreliable, not valid, lots of training required - Written Text Question (requires coding scheme that is qualitative or quantitative

Question 32

Closed-ended (Fixed-coice) Question

Answer 32

Asks for structured, fixed response - set of fixed options - -Categorical: no meaningful numerical values assigned to responses (probably nominal) - -Dichotomous: clear-cut yes or no, good for symptom checklists, public opinion surveys, but limits ability to do statistics - -Rating Scales: Likert rating scales (5 or 7) - -Semantic Differential Scale: respondents rate any concept using 7-point, evaluated on one of three attitudinal dimensions (evaluation, activity, potency) - -Graphic Rating Scale:like Likert, but responses are more continuous, precise (placing X on continuum)

Question 33

Mail Survey

Answer 33

Anonymity/reduced bias, low cost, wide geographic area, convenient But low response rates/biased sample, no control over conditions when survey is completed, can't answer questions of participants, limits on question types

Question 34

Internet Surveys

Answer 34

Fast/inexpensive, no limits on question types and visual aids, contingency questions possible but Overused/poorly conducted, sampling, conditions when survey is completed

Question 35

Telephone Surveys

Answer 35

Quickly/w/large staff, sequence of questions, computers speed data entry, random digit dialing makes random sample more likely but Selection bias, limits on question types

Question 36

In-Person Interviews

Answer 36

High response rate, long/complex surveys, clarify/answer questions, control over order of questions, control/report conditions but Expensive, sampling problems (homeless), interviewer bias

Question 37

Constructing survey

Answer 37

- -Decide what info/how to administer - -Write a draft - -Third-party proofreader - -Pretest, edit, finalize procedures - -Put demographic questions at the end

Question 38

Key components of experiments

Answer 38

1. Manipulated independent variable (at least 2 conditions, control of extraneous variables) 2. Statistical testing of hypotheses (ANOVA, differences due to chance is

Question 39

Benefits and limitations of experiments

Answer 39

Benefits: inferences for causality, theory testing, interactions between variables Limitations: low generalizability, a few variables at a time in an experiment, difficult/impossible, must know a lot about phenomenon prior, relatively expensive.

Question 40

Quasi-experiments (Grouping Variables)

Answer 40

IV = GV (not manipulated) | ---Gender/ethnicity, pre-existing attitudes, personality or trait variables

Question 41

Why manipulate more than one IV?

Answer 41

More efficient/more control. Results valid across wide range of conditions are more valuable. Identify where the results are not valid (C moderates relation between A & B).

Question 42

Select DV

Answer 42

Use theory, want it to be reliable/valid. | Be aware of ceiling/floor effects

Question 43

Control

Answer 43

Facilitated Communication: when knowledge of the facilitator is controlled for, the autistic child's performance is found to depend on tactile cuing by the facilitator. Clever Hans ---These could be seen for what they are if a control group is included.

Question 44

Random Assignment

Answer 44

Each person in your sample has an equal likelihood of being in any condition ----causality

Question 45

Random Sampling

Answer 45

Each person in the population has an equal likelihood of being in your study. -----generalizability

Question 46

Internal Validity

Answer 46

``` Is the study logic solid? Did the experimental stimulus make some significant difference in this specific instance? --Establish with random assignment to condition and/or order control of extraneous variables THREATS: -ambiguous temporal precedence -selection (cohort effect) -history -maturation -regression -attrition/mortality -testing -instrumentation -additive/interactive effects of threats to internal validity ```

Question 47

External Validity (generalizability)

Answer 47

To what populations, settings, independent variables, and dependent variables can this effect be generalized?

Question 48

Population Generalizability

Answer 48

To what people can you generalize? | Allows you to assume that the results of your study are true for some larger group of people.

Question 49

Statistical Generalizability

Answer 49

RANDOM SAMPLING Allows you to generalize to the POPULATION from which you RANDOMLY SELECTED (only). What are the limitations of the experimental setting compared to real life? - research setting different from other settings, variables operationalized.

Question 50

Threats to external validity

Answer 50

Interaction of the causal relationship with units (does effect found in one population hold for another population). ICR over treatment variations (effect for one treatment may not hold with other variations). ICR with outcomes (does treatment hold across different DVs) ICR with Settings (does treatment hold across different settings).

Question 51

Treatment Confounds

Answer 51

The experimenter has created differences not just on the independent variable, but other variables too.

Question 52

Reactivity (Hawthorne Effect)

Answer 52

Participant's behavior is influenced by he knowledge that they are being observed.

Question 53

Demand Characteristics

Answer 53

Cues available to participants in an experiment that enable them to figure out what is expected the experimenter. May alter their natural behavior.

Question 54

Experimenter Effects (Observer Bias)

Answer 54

Treating Ps differently depending on the condition they are in. - Self-fulfilling prophecy - Use "double-blind" experiments

Question 55

When results null...

Answer 55

Floor/ceiling effects Weak manipulation (restriction of range) Insensitive measure of DV Invalid manipulation of IV (requires manipulation check - direct measure of IV)