Psychology of everyday life Flashcards
When defining abnormality, what is it extremely important to consider?
Context is extremely important so that you can understand the circumstances.
What are the 4 main characteristics of abnormal functioning? Explain each one.
Deviance: Violations of society’s culturally based social norms.
Distress: This is experienced by the family and/or individual but it’s important to consider that most people experience distress.
Dysfunction: Distortion of perceptual or cognitive functioning altering your perception of reality.
Danger: To oneself or others but this only happens in rare cases.
List 3 examples of culturally BIASED abnormalities.
- Samuel Cartwright diagnosed slaves with drapetomania in the 1800s because they had an irrational urge to run away from home/slavery.
- He also diagnosed slaves with dysathesia aethopia because they refused to comply with work demands and they were disobedient.
- In the 1970s, homosexuality was in the DSM.
Is it easy or hard to define abnormalities?
Are labels for abnormalities effective?
It’s hard to define abnormalities because there are so many individual differences.
Labels aren’t effective because abnormalities are constantly changing and a lot of the time an individual won’t fit into certain labels and is therefore placed in the ‘others’ category.
What are the primitive sacred notions of abnormality?
3 things.
They believed that abnormality was cause by animistic models aka animal spirits, mythological models or demonological models aka evil spirits.
Describe some ancient views and treatments for abnormality.
2 things.
Abnormality was caused by magic and evil spirits and to eradicate this, they underwent trephination (this occurred during the stone age), which involves drilling a hole in the skulls, perhaps to release the evil spirits.
In literate cultures like egypt and china, they believed abnormalities were caused by demons and the patients would undergo exorcisms to treat the abnormalities.
Describe some Greek and Roman views and treatments for abnormality.
4 things.
They used Hindu medical treatments that were based on Babylonian ideas.
The greeks described mental disorders as melancholia, mania and phrenitis, which is brain fever/dementia.
Hippocrates believed mental disorders were caused by imbalances in bodily fluids called humors, aka black pile, yellow pile, phlegm and blood.
Another treatment involved treating underlying physical problems by sending the (usually upper class male) patients to a place with a relaxing atmosphere, music massages, vegetarian diets etc.
Describe some European Middle age views and treatments for abnormalities.
5 things.
This is when the Roman Empire collapsed and scientific reasoning collapsed with it as people believed plagues, wars and uprisings were caused by evil spirits/the devil.
They believed in disorders like tarantism, which is a sudden, hysterical impulse to dance that began in Taranto, Italy, lunacy aka moon madness and lycanthropy, which is wolf possession, caused by demons.
Lycanthropy is still around today but it is much less common and doesn’t involve demonic possession.
A study showed that out of 12 cases, 11, had acute or chronic psychosis and 8 of the patients had bipolar depression. The lycanthropy only lasted up to three weeks. Although, there was one cause where it lasted 13 years. Some of the animals that possessed the patient were; wolves, dogs, rabbits etc.
Treatments for disorders in this time period were usually exorcisms but towards the end of this age, medical treatments began to reappear.
Describe some treatments during the Renaissance for abnormalities. 3 things.
Also, describe the treatments during the 19th century. 3 things.
Renaissance: Johann Weyer was the first medical practitioner to specialise in mental illness. He focused on home care and pilgrimages to the holy shrine.
Some hospitals were turned into asylums, which became extremely dirty and degrading.
As well as the asylums having deplorable conditions, the treatments in there were also awful, for example, Benjamin Rush would draw blood from patients as a therapeutic treatment.
19th century: Pinel and Tuke protested to unchain mental patients and improve the conditions. Their treatments were known as moral treatments.
Psychiatrists were called Alienists and they treated patients via mesmerism, coma therapy, lobotomies etc. and this treatment worked with most patients.
Recovery rates then dropped along with money and staff and the mentally ill were seen as strange and dangerous.
To diagnose the mentally ill, they often looked for lumps and bumps in their skull.
Describe a cause for abnormailty from each culture:
Chinese
African
Chinese: Yin and yang and spirit possessions are the cause and they’re treated via acupuncture mainly.
African: Enemies, malicious spirits or offended ancestors are the cause. They only focus on physical causes.
What is the origin for the term lycanthropy?
Zeus transformed Lycaon into a wolf as punishment for tricking Zeus into eating human flesh, this was then incorporated into the mental illness.
What happened to most lycanthropes?
They were burned at the stake as it was thought to be a demonic possession.
True or false
People with mental disorders are unhappy.
Explain
False, people with mental disorders are less happy but still reported being happy often but the level of happiness does correlate with the type of disorder. Mood disorders and anxiety disorders reported the lowest happiness but this was still average.
What is another term for limitation?
Caveat
List 3 facts about the Biological paradigm model and 2 of its assumptions.
- It was one of the earliest models to attribute mental illness to physical causes.
- It has been a strong model since the development of psychotropic drugs in the 1950s.
- It has always considered all mental disorders as a disease and it’s also called the medical model
- It assumes that psychopathology is caused by an organic effect.
- It assumes that behaviour genetics, biochemistry and the nervous system can explain behaviour.
List three advantages about the Biological paradigm model.
- Psychotropic medications are gaining in importance so it’s useful to continue research for it.
- The research within this model is progressing rapidly.
- Psychological processes have biological causes, so it’s useful to develop biological treatments and cures (especially to reduce repeat prescriptions).
Within the biological model, what are the two subdivisions?
Behaviour genetics and biochemistry.
Give a brief overview of what behaviour genetics explores and how it explores this.
It explores individual differences in behaviour that are attributable to genetics and whether the phenotypes of clinical syndromes are expressed depending on context.
It explores this via concordance levels of Mz twins and Dz twins and whether they’re adopted or not, this helps uncover gene-environment interactions and reciprocal genes (genes predisposing people to create certain environments). E.g. more likely to get depression after a break up.
Give a brief overview of what biochemistry explores.
It explores the influence of various neurotransmitters like norepinephrine, serotonin, GABA and dopamine which are implicated to various disorders, mainly serotonin, like alcoholism, aggression etc.
In 1997 the first artificial chromosome was created so once all genes are mapped, gene therapy could potentially occur which would have a higher success rate than present treatments.
Who developed the psychodynamic model and what did the iceberg hypothesis consist of?
Freud.
The iceberg hypothesis, aka the Freudian self, consists of the conscious, the preconscious (your ego) and the unconscious (your ID and your super ego). The unconscious has the largest role.
Describe 7 beliefs of the psychodynamic model.
- Your libido, aka sensual energy, fuels the ID, ego and super ego.
- The Id operates with the pleasure principle and uses primary process thinking like wish fulfilment whereas your ego works with the reality principle and uses secondary process thinking.
- The ego creates defence mechanisms to reduce anxiety and unacceptable impulses caused by Id. The basic defence mechanism is repression.
- The superego grows from the ego and uses parents’ values through 2 components; the conscious and the ego ideal.
- Every child goes through psychosexual stages; oral anal, phallic, latency and genital.
- Ego psychologist like Erikson, believe that the ego is more independent and powerful than Freud says.
- Jung believed that personality involves self realisation and collective unconscious.
Name one strength and one limitation of the psychodynamic model.
Strength: It has had a significant impact on the treatment of abnormal functioning and has enabled us to understand that abnormal functioning can be at the root of normal functioning.
Limitation: It has little research,involves many case studies and often fails to predict abnormality so it can’t be fully validated.
List 2 assumptions of the behavioural model.
It assumes that (abnormal) behaviour is learnt.
It was the first clinical perspective developed in a psychological laboratory.
List the main three ways in which behaviour is learnt (behavioural model).
Explain.
Classical conditioning: This occurs via temporal association, where an neutral stimulus becomes conditioned and elicits a response via association. For example Pavlov’s dogs.
Operant conditioning: This occurs through reinforcement, positive reinforcement is more effective. Using this method you can undergo shaping, which is when you use rewards to get successive approximations of desired behaviour.
Modelling: Acquiring responses via imitation and observation, this includes language, gestures and food preferences.
List 2 strengths and 2 limitations of the behavioural model.
Strengths: It’s a powerful force in the clinical field that can be tested in a lab. The CB model is a model that is effective and is growing
Limitations: Treatments are easier to find than causes and behaviour doesn’t always follow basic principles.
Name 2 assumptions of the cognitive model.
It explores mental processes like perceiving, recognising, conceiving, judging and reasoning.
It believes that cognitive processes are at centre of behaviour, thought and emotions.
List 3 beliefs of the cognitive model.
Maladaptive and irrational assumptions lead one to react in ways that lower one’s chance of happiness and success.
Upsetting, automatic thoughts can contribute to abnormal thinking.
Illogical thinking involves selective perception, magnification and overgeneralisation.
List three strengths and one limitation of the cognitive model.
Strengths: It has a broad appeal for a lot of people.
The theories can be tested and there has been a lot of research in the field.
It’s effective in terms of treatment for depression, anxiety and sexual disorders.
Limitation: It has a narrow scope as it can’t help treat that many disorders.
When looking at the humanistic-existential model, what are the humanistic beliefs? (The model was formed by Roger)
Unconditional positive regard results in unconditional self regard.
Conditions of worth are your standards of self judgement and standards of conformity to social norms.
Low conditions of worth results in self deception, which inhibits self actualisation.
When looking at the humanistic-existential model, what are the existential beliefs?
Dysfunction is caused by self deception, which is hiding from life’s responsibilities.
Someone looks towards authorities, excessively conforms or builds resentment when overwhelmed with pressures.
Also, failure to fulfil responsibility can lead to feelings of emptiness, alienation, frustration, depression and anxiety.
List 2 strengths and one limitation of the humanistic-existential model.
Strengths: It’s an optimistic model that focuses on broad issues.
It views patients as people whose special potential is yet to be fulfilled and whose behaviour can be influenced by their innate goodness.
Limitation: The theories aren’t very adaptable to research.
List 3 facts about the sociocultural model
It believes that forms of abnormal behaviour are linked to social classes and patterns of abnormal behaviour vary among cultures.
It partakes in epidemiological studies which identifies the prevalence and incidence of specific disorders.
It has shown that societies undergoing major change have higher incidences of mental illness.
It has shown that mental illness is 3 times higher in lower class areas compared to higher classes.
It has shown that physical and psychological health is harder to achieve when you’re prejudiced against a certain race or gender.
There are twice as many incidences of anxiety and depression in women.
List one strength and 3 limitations of the sociocultural model
Strength: It’s added an important dimension to our understanding of abnormal functioning
Limitations: Research is sometimes inaccurate and hard to interpret.
Studies have failed to support the model’s key predictions.
The model can’t predict psychopathology in specific individuals.
When comparing models, what 3 things should you keep in mind?
Give an example for the last point.
No model is consistently superior than the other
All relevant factors from each model should be appreciated
Many predisposing factors can contribute to a disorder and other factors can maintain it. For example, your genetics can predispose you to a disorder and your environment (stressful surroundings) can precipitate it, this is the diathesis stress model.
List 5 ways in which you assess for a disorder
Interviews (structured or unstructured), questionnaires, performance tests (neuro, self report, intelligence, projective etc.), observations (naturalistic, self monitoring or structured) and measuring families.
What did Rorschach believe?
He believed that the pictures children saw in the clouds, reflected their personalities and using this idea, he created the ink blot test.
Describe the Bender visual motor gestalt test
It’s an intelligence test used to evaluate disorders designed for patients after brain trauma. They have to memorise and draw specific patterns.
List 6 errors in thinking, explain each one.
- The fundamental attribution error, which is when people overestimate the influence of personality and underestimate influences of the environment.
- The human mind makes errors, especially in terms of inaccurate clinical judgement.
- Confirmatory bias, which is when a patient confirms preconceived thoughts of the clinician.
- First impressions having an effect on judgement.
- Illusory correlation, which is when you believe one variable has a direct effect on the other.
- Availability bias, which is when a patient only recalls recent information as it’s more memorable.
How many disorders does the DSM-V diagnose?
How many categories in the DSM are there?
200
14
List 6 potential sources of bias during diagnosis and research
- Using a diagnostic system as it ignores causes.
- Judgements by clinicians
- Measurement methods
- The sampling method
- Only using participants who are seeking treatment
- Using women predominantly for research as they seek treatment more.
Describe the 2 levels to every dream, according to the psychoanalytic perspective (Freud).
- The manifest content, which consists of left over residue from the day.
- The latent content, which consists of unconscious conflicts that the person is having.
What are the necessary components for a flourishing relationship? What must this be accompanied by?
Attachment and love which must be accompanied by positive purposeful relationship behaviours.
Briefly describe Bowlby (1969)’s study
He found two types of parenting behaviours: maladaptive; chaotic, unplanned attempts to meet the child’s need, adaptive; responsive to a child’s behavioural cues. These can affect the child’s functional behaviour and emotional experiences. He found out that insecure attachment is a precursor for many development struggles.
What does the attachment system do in terms of parental behaviour? What did Lopez (2003) state?
It regulates the proximity seeking behaviours that connect infants and caregivers in physical and emotional space.
He stated that the primary function of infant attachment is for protection and emotional security.
Describe Ainsworth’s study (1979)
He created a strange situations test with a child and caregiver. They were put in a novel situation; the baby is put on the floor away from toys, a stranger comes in and talks to the mum, then plays with the baby. The mum leaves.
Mum returns, mum and stranger leave. Stranger returns, plays with the baby and then mum returns and picks up the child.
The responses are coded; secure (balance between exploration of the environment and contact with the caregiver), insecure-avoidant (avoids the caregiver when reintroduced) and insecure-resistant (demonstrates hostility towards the caregiver but also wants to be comforted).
What is an internal working model of self and others? Explain
It is attachment. It consists of children integrating the perceptions of their social competence and lovability (self model) with expectations of their caregivers (other model). The models stay relatively stable through development as they are self reinforcing.
