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Study Guide Flashcards

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1
Q

Compare and contrast the organization of gray and white matter in the brain.

A

Gray matter contains neuronal cell bodies, while white matter consists of myelinated axons.

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2
Q

Describe the characteristics of the cranial meninges and the cranial dural septa.

A

The cranial meninges consist of three layers: dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. The cranial dural septa are extensions of the dura mater that separate different brain regions.

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3
Q

Explain the origin, function, and pattern of cerebrospinal fluid circulation.

A

Cerebrospinal fluid is produced in the choroid plexus, circulates through the ventricles, and is absorbed into the bloodstream via arachnoid granulations.

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4
Q

Describe the structure of the blood-brain barrier and how it protects the brain.

A

The blood-brain barrier is formed by tight junctions between endothelial cells, preventing harmful substances from entering the brain while allowing essential nutrients to pass.

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5
Q

Identify and describe the anatomic structures and functional areas of the cerebrum.

A

The cerebrum includes the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes, each responsible for different functions such as movement, sensation, and vision.

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6
Q

Describe the tracts associated with the central white matter of the cerebrum.

A

The central white matter contains association tracts, commissural tracts, and projection tracts that facilitate communication within the cerebrum and with other brain regions.

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7
Q

Identify the divisions of the diencephalon, and describe their functions.

A

The diencephalon includes the thalamus (sensory relay), hypothalamus (homeostasis), and epithalamus (melatonin production).

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8
Q

Identify the components of the brainstem, and describe their functions.

A

The brainstem consists of the midbrain (vision and hearing), pons (regulation of breathing), and medulla oblongata (heart rate and blood pressure).

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9
Q

Describe the structure and functions of the cerebellum.

A

The cerebellum has a highly folded surface and is involved in coordination, balance, and fine motor control.

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10
Q

List the names and identify the locations of the twelve cranial nerves.

A

The twelve cranial nerves are: I (Olfactory), II (Optic), III (Oculomotor), IV (Trochlear), V (Trigeminal), VI (Abducens), VII (Facial), VIII (Vestibulocochlear), IX (Glossopharyngeal), X (Vagus), XI (Accessory), XII (Hypoglossal).

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11
Q

Describe the principal functions of each cranial nerve.

A

Cranial nerves serve functions such as sensory input, motor control, and autonomic functions.

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12
Q

Describe the structure of the spinal cord.

A

The spinal cord is a cylindrical structure with a central canal, surrounded by gray matter and white matter.

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13
Q

Identify and describe the different regions and features of the spinal cord.

A

The spinal cord is divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions, each with specific features and functions.

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14
Q

Explain the arrangement and functions of the spinal meninges.

A

The spinal meninges consist of dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater, providing protection and support to the spinal cord.

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15
Q

Describe the internal anatomy of the spinal cord.

A

The internal anatomy includes gray matter (dorsal and ventral horns) and white matter (ascending and descending tracts).

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16
Q

List and describe the spinal nerve branches.

A

Spinal nerves branch into dorsal and ventral rami, which innervate specific body regions.

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17
Q

Define the concept of a dermatome, and explain the clinical importance of a dermatome.

A

A dermatome is an area of skin innervated by a single spinal nerve, important for diagnosing nerve injuries.

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18
Q

Compare and contrast the structure, distribution, and innervation patterns for each of the spinal nerve plexuses.

A

Spinal nerve plexuses include the cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexuses, each with distinct structures and innervation patterns.

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19
Q

Compare and contrast the anatomy and functions of the SNS and the ANS.

A

The SNS (somatic nervous system) controls voluntary movements, while the ANS (autonomic nervous system) regulates involuntary functions.

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20
Q

Explain how the two-neuron pathway facilitates communication and control in the ANS.

A

The ANS uses a two-neuron pathway (preganglionic and postganglionic neurons) to transmit signals from the CNS to effectors.

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21
Q

Describe the functional differences between the parasympathetic and the sympathetic divisions.

A

The parasympathetic division promotes rest and digest functions, while the sympathetic division prepares the body for fight or flight responses.

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22
Q

Compare and contrast the anatomic components of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions.

A

The parasympathetic division has long preganglionic fibers and short postganglionic fibers, while the sympathetic division has short preganglionic fibers and long postganglionic fibers.

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23
Q

Describe the anatomy of the parasympathetic division.

A

The parasympathetic division originates from the brainstem and sacral spinal cord, with cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X involved.

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24
Q

Explain the relationship of the parasympathetic division to the brain, the cranial components, and the pelvic splanchnic nerves.

A

The parasympathetic division connects to the brain via cranial nerves and to the pelvic organs via pelvic splanchnic nerves.

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25
Identify the effects of parasympathetic innervation on effectors.
Parasympathetic innervation promotes activities like decreased heart rate, increased digestion, and glandular secretion.
26
Describe the anatomy of the sympathetic division.
The sympathetic division originates from the thoracolumbar region of the spinal cord and has a chain of ganglia alongside the vertebral column.
27
Explain the relationship of the sympathetic division to the spinal cord and the spinal nerves.
The sympathetic division connects to the spinal cord through the thoracic and lumbar spinal nerves.
28
Describe the sympathetic function of the adrenal medulla.
The adrenal medulla releases epinephrine and norepinephrine during stress, enhancing the fight or flight response.
29
Identify the effects of sympathetic innervation on effectors.
Sympathetic innervation increases heart rate, dilates airways, and inhibits digestion.
30
Compare and contrast the types of neurotransmitters.
The ANS uses acetylcholine and norepinephrine as neurotransmitters, with different effects on target organs.
31
Explain dual innervation by the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the ANS.
Most organs receive input from both divisions, allowing for fine-tuned regulation of bodily functions.
32
Identify and describe the properties and classification schemes for sensory receptors.
Sensory receptors are classified by modality (e.g., photoreceptors, mechanoreceptors) and location (e.g., exteroceptors, interoceptors).
33
Describe the types of tactile receptors and their functions.
Tactile receptors include Meissner's corpuscles (light touch), Pacinian corpuscles (deep pressure), and Merkel cells (texture).
34
Identify and describe the structure, location, and innervation pathway of olfactory receptors.
Olfactory receptors are located in the nasal cavity, with sensory neurons sending signals to the olfactory bulb.
35
Define and describe the structure, location, and innervation pathway of gustatory receptors.
Gustatory receptors are located on taste buds in the tongue, with sensory neurons transmitting taste information to the brain.
36
Identify and describe the structure and function of the accessory structures of the eye.
Accessory structures include eyelids, eyelashes, and lacrimal glands, which protect and lubricate the eye.
37
Describe the anatomy of the eye.
The eye consists of the cornea, lens, retina, and other structures that facilitate vision.
38
Identify the structures, and describe the anatomy of the ear.
The ear includes the outer ear (pinna), middle ear (ossicles), and inner ear (cochlea), responsible for hearing and balance.
39
Outline hormone classification based upon chemical structure.
Hormones are classified as peptide, steroid, or amine hormones based on their chemical structure.
40
Explain how negative and positive feedback regulate hormone secretion.
Negative feedback inhibits hormone release when levels are high, while positive feedback stimulates further release.
41
Name the hormones secreted by the hypothalamus and describe their function.
The hypothalamus secretes hormones like oxytocin (uterine contraction) and antidiuretic hormone (water retention).
42
Describe the anatomy of the anterior and posterior pituitary.
The anterior pituitary is glandular tissue, while the posterior pituitary is neural tissue connected to the hypothalamus.
43
Explain the types of cells that secrete the hormones of the anterior pituitary.
The anterior pituitary contains acidophils (secrete growth hormone and prolactin) and basophils (secrete TSH, ACTH, and gonadotropins).
44
Name the hormones of the anterior pituitary, and describe their functions.
Hormones include growth hormone (growth), prolactin (milk production), TSH (thyroid stimulation), ACTH (adrenal stimulation), and gonadotropins (reproductive function).
45
Name the hormones of the posterior pituitary and describe their functions.
Hormones include oxytocin (uterine contraction) and antidiuretic hormone (water retention).
46
Explain the relationships between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.
The hypothalamus regulates the pituitary gland through releasing and inhibiting hormones.
47
Describe the anatomy and location of the thyroid gland.
The thyroid gland is located in the neck, anterior to the trachea, and consists of two lobes connected by an isthmus.
48
Describe how thyroid hormone secretion is regulated by the anterior pituitary.
Thyroid hormone secretion is regulated by TSH from the anterior pituitary.
49
Identify the parafollicular cells, name the hormone they secrete, and describe its function.
Parafollicular cells secrete calcitonin, which lowers blood calcium levels.
50
Describe the parathyroid glands’ anatomy and location.
The parathyroid glands are small glands located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland.
51
Name the hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands, and explain how it functions.
The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which increases blood calcium levels.
52
Differentiate between the structure of the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla.
The adrenal cortex is composed of three layers producing steroid hormones, while the adrenal medulla consists of chromaffin cells producing catecholamines.
53
Name the hormones produced in the adrenal cortex and describe their effects on target cells.
Hormones include cortisol (stress response), aldosterone (salt retention), and androgens (sex characteristics).
54
Name the hormones produced in the adrenal medulla and describe their effects on target cells.
Hormones include epinephrine and norepinephrine, which enhance the fight or flight response.
55
Describe the anatomy and location of the pancreas.
The pancreas is located posterior to the stomach and has both exocrine and endocrine functions.
56
Name the hormones produced by the pancreatic islets, and explain how they function.
Hormones include insulin (lowers blood glucose) and glucagon (raises blood glucose).
57
Describe the anatomy, location, and endocrine functions of the pineal gland and thymus.
The pineal gland is located in the brain and secretes melatonin, while the thymus is located in the thorax and is involved in immune function.
58
What do the preganglionic axons of CN III extend to?
The preganglionic axons of CN III extend to the ciliary ganglion.
59
What do the preganglionic axons of CN VII extend to?
The preganglionic axons of CN VII extend to the pterygopalatine and submandibular ganglia.
60
What is the parasympathetic division of the ANS also called?
The parasympathetic division of the ANS is also called the craniosacral division.
61
What is parasympathetic activity responsible for?
Parasympathetic activity is responsible for motility and secretory activity in digestive tract organs.
62
What is the sympathetic division of the ANS also called?
The sympathetic division of the ANS is also called the thoracolumbar division.
63
Where are preganglionic sympathetic neuron cell bodies housed?
Preganglionic sympathetic neuron cell bodies are housed in the lateral horns of the spinal cord.
64
What are prevertebral ganglia named after?
Prevertebral ganglia are named after the arteries they are associated with.
65
What do splanchnic nerves consist of?
Splanchnic nerves are composed of preganglionic sympathetic axons that did not synapse in the sympathetic trunk.
66
What type of receptors monitor levels of carbon dioxide in blood?
These receptors are classified as chemoreceptors.
67
What do nociceptors respond to?
Nociceptors respond to pain caused by external and internal stimuli.
68
What are the largest and least numerous papillae on the tongue called?
The largest and least numerous papillae are called vallate papillae.
69
What are the four types of papillae on the tongue?
The four types of papillae on the tongue are filiform, vallate, foliate, and fungiform.
70
What is the fibrous tunic of the eye composed of?
The fibrous tunic of the eye is composed of the cornea and sclera.
71
What structure is responsible for changes in pupil size?
The iris is responsible for changes in pupil size.
72
What is the white portion of the eye called?
The white portion of the eye is called the sclera.
73
What do suspensory ligaments function to change?
Suspensory ligaments function to change the shape of the lens within the eye.
74
Where are the middle and inner ear housed?
The middle and inner ear are housed within the temporal bone.
75
What structure equalizes air pressure between the atmosphere and the middle ear?
The auditory tube equalizes air pressure between the atmosphere and the middle ear.
76
What are the middle ear bones from lateral to medial?
The middle ear bones from lateral to medial are malleus, incus, and stapes.
77
What do amino acids link together to make?
Amino acids link together to make proteins.
78
What does the pancreas release in response to high blood glucose?
In response to high blood glucose, the pancreas releases insulin.
79
What hormone is likely released after a meal to lower blood glucose levels?
Insulin is likely released after a meal to help lower blood glucose levels.
80
What hormone is secreted by the pineal gland?
The hormone secreted by the pineal gland is melatonin.
81
What is the region of the adrenal cortex that synthesizes glucocorticoids?
The zona fasciculata is the region of the adrenal cortex that synthesizes glucocorticoids.
82
What hormone is released during an overnight fast to maintain blood glucose levels?
Glucagon is released during an overnight fast to help maintain proper blood glucose levels.
83
What is the condition where diabetes is caused by immune attack on pancreatic beta cells?
Type 1 diabetes is caused by immune attack on pancreatic beta cells.
84
What organ has both endocrine and exocrine functions?
The pancreas is an organ with both endocrine and exocrine functions.
85
What is the order of cranial meninges from superficial to deep?
Dura mater → Arachnoid → Pia mater
86
What is the tentorium cerebelli?
A horizontally oriented fold of dura mater that separates the occipital and temporal lobes of the cerebrum from the cerebellum.
87
What is the falx cerebri?
The largest of the four dural septa, this large, sickle-shaped vertical fold of dura mater separates the left and right cerebral hemispheres.
88
What is the septum pellucidum?
A partition between the lateral ventricles.
89
What is the choroid plexus?
Structure that forms cerebrospinal fluid.
90
Where are brain ventricles located?
Brain ventricles are continuous with one another and with the central canal of the spinal cord.
91
What is the corpus callosum?
Major pathway of communication between the right and left hemispheres of the five cerebral lobes, the one not visible on the surface of the brain.
92
What is the occipital lobe?
Portion of the brain involved primarily with vision.
93
What are association tracts?
Connect different regions of the cerebral cortex within the same hemisphere.
94
What are commissural tracts?
Extend between the right and left cerebral hemispheres.
95
What are projection tracts?
Link the cerebral cortex to the caudal brain regions and the spinal cord.
96
What structures are contained in the diencephalon?
Contains the epithalamus, hypothalamus, and the thalamus.
97
What is the epithalamus?
Forms part of the roof of the diencephalon and covers the third ventricle; its posterior portion houses the pineal gland and the habenular nuclei.
98
What does the pineal gland secrete?
Secretes the hormone melatonin, which helps to regulate the body's circadian rhythms.
99
What is the brainstem?
Most caudal part of the brain, which is continuous with the spinal cord.
100
What is the medulla oblongata?
Part of the brain containing the arbor vitae.
101
What is cranial nerve VI?
Cranial nerve composed of only motor fibers.
102
What is the function of cranial nerve responsible for movement of the medial rectus?
Responsible for movement of the medial rectus, superior oblique, and inferior oblique muscles.
103
What is Bell's palsy?
A condition characterized by the paralysis of facial muscles, eyelid droop, and sagging at the corners of the mouth. The affected nerve is cranial nerve VII.
104
What is the order of the parts of the spinal cord, from superior to inferior?
Cervical - Thoracic - Lumbar - Sacral.
105
What is the conus medullaris?
Tapered, conical inferior end of the spinal cord.
106
What is the filum terminale?
Thin strand of pia mater that helps to anchor the spinal cord to the coccyx.
107
What is the subarachnoid space?
Space associated with the spinal cord meninges containing cerebrospinal fluid.
108
What do the posterior horns of the spinal cord contain?
Contain sensory neurons.
109
What is the structure that contains unmyelinated axons in the spinal cord?
Serves as a communication route between right and left sides of the gray matter in the spinal cord.
110
What are cervical plexuses?
Network of interwoven anterior rami of spinal nerves that lie on either side of the neck.
111
What is the brachial plexus?
Plexus that supplies the upper limbs.
112
Where are the cell bodies of sensory neurons located?
Located in the posterior root ganglion.
113
What is the sacral plexus?
Plexus formed from the anterior rami of L4-S4.
114
What is a dermatome?
A specific segment of skin supplied by a single spinal nerve.
115
What is the first of the two ANS lower motor neurons?
Preganglionic neuron.
116
What is not an effector innervated by the autonomic nervous system?
Skeletal muscle.
117
How many neurons does the ANS use to innervate its effectors?
Uses pathways that include two-neuron chains.
118
What is not characteristic of the parasympathetic division of the ANS?
Long postganglionic axons.
119
What division of the ANS dominates when an individual relaxes after a large meal?
Parasympathetic division.
120
What type of neurons may the ANS receive input from?
Visceral sensory neurons.
121
What cranial nerves are associated with the parasympathetic division of the ANS?
CN III, VII, IX, X.

Unit 4 (9 decks)

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