Unit 2 Obejectives

Question 1

Describe the general structure of the integument.

Answer 1

The integument consists of the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous layer.

Question 2

Explain the varied functions of the integument.

Answer 2

The integument provides protection, regulates temperature, and facilitates sensation.

Question 3

Describe the structure, composition and arrangement, and functions of the epidermal strata.

Answer 3

The epidermis has multiple strata, including the stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale, each with specific roles in protection and barrier function.

Question 4

Describe the composition, function, and locations of the epidermal cells.

Answer 4

Epidermal cells include keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells, each contributing to skin protection, pigmentation, and sensation.

Question 5

Compare and contrast epidermal variations in thickness, color, and markings.

Answer 5

Epidermal thickness varies by body region, color is influenced by melanin levels, and markings can include fingerprints and scars.

Question 6

Describe the organization and function of the layers of the dermis.

Answer 6

The dermis is organized into the papillary and reticular layers, providing strength, elasticity, and housing blood vessels and nerves.

Question 7

Describe nerve and blood supply to the dermis, and the role of the dermal blood supply in regulating body temperature.

Answer 7

The dermis contains a rich supply of blood vessels and nerves, which help regulate temperature through vasodilation and vasoconstriction.

Question 8

Identify and describe the structure and function of the subcutaneous layer.

Answer 8

The subcutaneous layer consists of loose connective tissue and fat, providing insulation and cushioning.

Question 9

Describe the structure and functions of nails.

Answer 9

Nails are composed of keratinized cells, providing protection and enhancing fine motor tasks.

Question 10

Describe the structure, distribution, and functions of hairs.

Answer 10

Hairs are composed of keratin and are found all over the body, providing protection, insulation, and sensory functions.

Question 11

Identify and describe the characteristics of sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and other glands found in the skin.

Answer 11

Sweat glands help regulate temperature, sebaceous glands secrete oil for lubrication, and other glands include mammary and ceruminous glands.

Question 12

Explain the functions of cartilage.

Answer 12

Cartilage provides support, flexibility, and cushioning in joints.

Question 13

Describe the function and distribution of hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage.

Answer 13

Hyaline cartilage provides smooth surfaces for joints, fibrocartilage absorbs shock, and elastic cartilage maintains shape while allowing flexibility.

Question 14

Explain the functions of bone.

Answer 14

Bones provide support, protect organs, facilitate movement, store minerals, and house blood cell production.

Question 15

Identify and describe the characteristics of long, short, flat, and irregular bones.

Answer 15

Long bones are longer than they are wide, short bones are cube-shaped, flat bones are thin and flat, and irregular bones have complex shapes.

Question 16

Describe the gross anatomy of a long bone.

Answer 16

A long bone consists of a diaphysis, epiphyses, and a medullary cavity.

Question 17

Identify and describe the cells of bone connective tissue and their functions.

Answer 17

Bone connective tissue includes osteoblasts (bone formation), osteocytes (maintenance), and osteoclasts (bone resorption).

Question 18

Compare and contrast the microscopic anatomy of compact bone and spongy bone.

Answer 18

Compact bone is dense and forms the outer layer, while spongy bone is lighter and contains trabeculae.

Question 19

Identify the anatomic terms that describe the surface features of bone.

Answer 19

Surface features include processes, fossae, foramina, and condyles.

Question 20

Describe the general structure of articulations.

Answer 20

Articulations consist of bones connected by cartilage, ligaments, and synovial membranes.

Question 21

Explain the connection between mobility and stability of a joint.

Answer 21

In general, increased mobility leads to decreased stability and vice versa.

Question 22

Compare and contrast the structural and functional classifications of joints.

Answer 22

Structural classifications include fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints; functional classifications are synarthroses, amphiarthroses, and diarthroses.

Question 23

Describe the structure and identify locations of gomphoses, sutures, and syndesmoses in the body.

Answer 23

Gomphoses are peg-and-socket joints (e.g., teeth), sutures are immovable joints in the skull, and syndesmoses are connected by ligaments (e.g., between radius and ulna).

Question 24

Describe the structure and identify locations of the two types of cartilaginous joints.

Answer 24

Synchondroses are connected by hyaline cartilage (e.g., growth plates), while symphyses are connected by fibrocartilage (e.g., pubic symphysis).

Question 25

Describe the general anatomy of synovial joints and their accessory structures.

Answer 25

Synovial joints have a joint capsule, synovial membrane, articular cartilage, and may include ligaments and bursae.

Question 26

Name the classes of synovial joints based upon the joint surface shapes, explain the types of movement permitted, and identify their locations in the body.

Answer 26

Classes include hinge (elbow), ball-and-socket (shoulder), pivot (neck), and saddle (thumb), each allowing specific movements.

Question 27

Define and describe dynamic movements that occur at synovial joints.

Answer 27

Dynamic movements include flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, and circumduction.

Question 28

List and explain the five unique properties of muscle tissue.

Answer 28

Muscle tissue exhibits excitability, contractility, extensibility, elasticity, and adaptability.

Question 29

Describe the many roles (functions) of skeletal muscle in the body.

Answer 29

Skeletal muscle facilitates movement, maintains posture, and generates heat.

Question 30

Describe the levels of organization in a skeletal muscle.

Answer 30

Skeletal muscle organization includes muscle fibers, fascicles, and the muscle itself.

Question 31

Explain how muscles are attached to other body structures.

Answer 31

Muscles attach via tendons to bones or other muscles.

Question 32

Outline and describe the components of muscle fibers.

Answer 32

Muscle fibers consist of myofibrils, sarcomeres, and are surrounded by a sarcolemma.

Question 33

Describe the structure of a neuromuscular junction.

Answer 33

A neuromuscular junction is the synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber.

Question 34

Detail the structure and function of a motor unit.

Answer 34

A motor unit consists of a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates, coordinating muscle contraction.

Question 35

Describe the four fascicle organizational patterns in skeletal muscle.

Answer 35

Fascicle patterns include parallel, convergent, circular, and pennate.

Question 36

Explain what occurs during muscle atrophy and muscle hypertrophy.

Answer 36

Atrophy is the decrease in muscle size due to disuse, while hypertrophy is the increase in muscle size due to exercise.

Question 37

Describe the characteristics of the three types of levers in the body.

Answer 37

First-class levers have the fulcrum in the middle, second-class levers have the load in the middle, and third-class levers have the effort in the middle.

Question 38

Explain how interacting skeletal muscles can initiate or prevent movement.

Answer 38

Muscles work in pairs, with one muscle contracting while the other relaxes to facilitate or inhibit movement.

Question 39

Explain how muscle names incorporate appearance, location, function, orientation, and/or unusual features.

Answer 39

Muscle names often reflect their shape, location (e.g., rectus abdominis), function (e.g., flexor), or orientation (e.g., transverse).

Question 40

Describe the similarities and differences among the three types of muscle tissue.

Answer 40

Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary, cardiac muscle is striated and involuntary, and smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary.

Question 41

Identify and describe the organs of the CNS and PNS.

Answer 41

The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord; the PNS includes all peripheral nerves.

Question 42

Explain the general functions of the nervous system.

Answer 42

The nervous system processes sensory information, coordinates responses, and regulates bodily functions.

Question 43

Identify and describe the specific functions of the sensory and motor nervous systems.

Answer 43

The sensory nervous system transmits sensory information to the CNS, while the motor nervous system sends commands to muscles.

Question 44

Compare and contrast the somatic sensory and visceral sensory components.

Answer 44

Somatic sensory components convey information from skin and muscles, while visceral sensory components relay information from internal organs.

Question 45

Compare and contrast the somatic motor and autonomic (visceral) motor components.

Answer 45

Somatic motor components control voluntary movements, while autonomic components regulate involuntary functions.

Question 46

Describe the basic characteristics common to all neurons.

Answer 46

Neurons are excitable cells that transmit electrical signals, consisting of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon.

Question 47

Identify and describe the different structures of the neuron, including the cell body, dendrites, and axon.

Answer 47

The cell body contains the nucleus, dendrites receive signals, and the axon transmits impulses away from the cell body.

Question 48

Explain the structural and functional classifications of neurons.

Answer 48

Neurons can be classified structurally as unipolar, bipolar, or multipolar, and functionally as sensory, motor, or interneurons.

Question 49

Explain the differences among the various types of glial cells, and describe their structures and function.

Answer 49

Glial cells include astrocytes (support), oligodendrocytes (myelination), microglia (immune defense), and ependymal cells (cerebrospinal fluid production).

Question 50

Identify and describe the composition and function of a myelin sheath.

Answer 50

The myelin sheath is composed of lipid-rich layers that insulate axons and enhance signal transmission.

Question 51

Describe the organization and structure of a nerve.

Answer 51

A nerve is organized into bundles of axons, surrounded by connective tissue layers: endoneurium, perineurium, and epineurium.

Question 52

Describe the components of the various types of synapses.

Answer 52

Synapses consist of a presynaptic terminal, synaptic cleft, and postsynaptic membrane.

Question 53

Identify the four different neuronal circuits, and describe how each one functions.

Answer 53

Neuronal circuits include diverging, converging, reverberating, and parallel after-discharge circuits, each facilitating different types of signal processing.

Question 54

Describe the tunics found in a typical blood vessel.

Answer 54

Blood vessels have three tunics: tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica externa.

Question 55

Compare and contrast the structure and function of arteries, capillaries, and veins.

Answer 55

Arteries have thick walls for high pressure, capillaries are thin for exchange, and veins have valves to prevent backflow.

Question 56

Describe the path of blood flow from each type of artery to capillaries to veins.

Answer 56

Blood flows from elastic arteries to muscular arteries to arterioles, then to capillaries, and returns via venules to veins.

Question 57

Compare and contrast the structure and locations of the three types of capillaries.

Answer 57

Continuous capillaries have tight junctions, fenestrated capillaries have pores for increased permeability, and sinusoidal capillaries are highly permeable.

Question 58

Explain how the respiratory pump and the skeletal muscle pump help propel blood through veins.

Answer 58

The respiratory pump creates pressure changes during breathing, while the skeletal muscle pump uses muscle contractions to push blood in veins.