UNIT 1 + UNIT 2 Flashcards
(179 cards)
1
Q
behavioral genetics
A
focuses on discovering how genes and experiences interact and lead to specific behaviors and mental abilities
2
Q
Molecular genetics
A
the study of how specific genes influence behavior and psychological traits.
3
Q
DNA
A
a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
4
Q
Genes
A
segments of DNA that contain instructions to make proteins - building blocks of life
5
Q
Heritability
A
a measure of how well differences in people’s genes account for differences in their traits
imagine a city full of clones (all identical genes) who grow up with different environments. If they all took an IQ test, any differences between their scores could be explained by the environment, so heritability would be zero. On the other hand, if we imagine a city full of people with different genes but who all had identical environmental experiences then any score differences would be due to genes so heritability would be 1.
6
Q
dominant alleles
A
show their effect even if the individual only has one copy of the allele
7
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Recessive alleles
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only show their effect if the individual has two copies of the allele
8
Q
genome
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the entirety of that individual’s hereditary information
9
Q
genotype
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the collection of genes responsible for the various genetic traits of a given organism (example: bb)
10
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phenotype
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the visible or observable expression of the results of genes, combined with the environmental influence on an organism’s appearance or behavior (blue eyes)
11
Q
reciprocal determinism
A
The characteristics of the person, the person’s behavior, and the environment all affect one another in a two-way causal relationships
12
Q
Phenylketonuria
A
causes cognitive disabilities, but only if the affected person’s diet includes foods containing a certain enzyme. If the person with the PKU gene is kept on a strict diet for the first two decades of life, they will have normal intelligence.
13
Q
epigenetic
A
he study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
14
Q
identical twins
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twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
Have similar personality and intelligence levels
15
Q
fraternal twins
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twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.
16
Q
charles darwin
A
creator of natural selection - some psychological traits might be advantageous for survival and those traits would be passed down from parents to the next generation
17
Q
evolutionary psychology
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the branch of psychology that studies the mental adaptations of humans to a changing environment
18
Q
natural selection
A
certain behaviors and genes best for survival (Survival of the Fittest)
-Behaviors such as stranger anxiety, parental love, phobias (spiders, snakes) can all be explained natural selection
-If a person is outgoing, he or she might make friends an allied and these connections could improve the individual’s chances of survival, which increases the person’s chances of passing this trait for extroversion down to his or her kids
19
Q
endocrine system
A
the collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep and mood
20
Q
hormone
A
A chemical messenger produced in the body that controls and regulates the activity of certain cells or organs (released in the bloodstream)
21
Q
hypothalamus
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brain region controlling the pituitary gland
22
Q
pituitary gland
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the “master control gland;” controls other glands and makes the hormones that trigger growth
23
Q
pineal gland
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produces melatonin which affects sleep
24
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adrenal gland
A
make hormones like adrenaline and cortisol to help your body handle stress.
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Thyroid gland
affects metabolism
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parathyroid gland
help regulate the level of calcium in the blood
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pancreus
regulates the level of sugar in the blood
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testis
secretes male sex hormones -- linked with aggressive behavior
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ovary
secretes female sex hormones
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melatonin
chemical associated with sleep
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Nervous system
The body's electrochemical communications network.
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central nervous system
The brain & spinal cord, which distribute & process messages.
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spinal cord
nerves that form the connections between the brain and the peripheral nervous system and are encased in the spine
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peripheral nervous system
A branch of the human nervous system that includes all components except the brain and spinal cord
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Somatic Nervous System -
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements
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Autonomic Nervous System
A part of the peripheral nervous system that regulates bodily processes such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion
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sympathetic nervous system
branch of the autonomic nervous system that excites body by preparing it for action (increased heartbeat, pupils dilate, lungs increase oxygen, relax bladder, etc) FIGHT OR FLIGHT
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parasympathetic nervous system
branch of the autonomic nervous system that restore the body's energy sources once they have been depleted (pupils constrict, heart beat slows, constrict airways, stomach contract, etc), REST AND DIGEST
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sensory or afferent nuerons
neurons that take information from the senses to the brain
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Motor or efferent neurons
Neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body
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Internuerons
in the brain or spinal cord, neurons that take messages and send them elsewhere in the brain or spinal cord
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spinal reflex
An immediate response to external stimuli directed at the level of the spinal cord
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mirror nuerons
brain cells that fire both when you do something and when you see someone else do the same thing, helping with empathy and learning.
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nuerons
individual nerve cells that make up our entire nervous system
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dendrites
receive neural messages
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Cell body(soma)
contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life
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axon
wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body -- passes the messages along
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myelin sheath
a fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds neural impulses (lack of it can cause Multiple Sclerosis)
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Terminal Buttons (Axon Terminals) -
branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters
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synapse
space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron
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glial cells
provide nutrition and protection for the neurons
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schwann cells
Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin.
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Node of Ranvier
Tiny gaps within the myelin sheath covering a nerve cell; may help speed impulses
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action potential
An impulse or brief electric charge that travels down the axon.
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threshold
The level of stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse.
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all or none response
A neuron either sends an impulse or it does not.
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resting potential
When a neuron does not have an action potential
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polarized
The state of a resting neuron; the outside of the membrane is positively charged while the inside of the membrane is negatively charged.
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depolarization
describes an axon that is firing. Positive ions enter the axon, and cause other positive ions to move into the axon in the form of a neural impulse down the axon.
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refractory period
A resting pause, where neurons pump positively charged sodium ions back outside of the cell.
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acetylcholine
enables muscle action, and memory
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example of acetylcholine malfunction
with alzheimers disease acetylcholine producing nuerons deteriorate
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dopamine
movement, attention and rewards
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oversupply of dopamine leads to
schizophrenia
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undersupply of dopamine related to
decreased mobility in parkinson's
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serotonin
affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
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undersupply of serotonin is linked to
depression
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norepinephrine
helps control alertness and arousal
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GABA
major inhibitory neurotransmitter
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undersupply of GABA is linked to
seizures,tremors and insomnia
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glutamate
a major excitatory nuerotransmitter
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oversupply of Glutamate can cause
migraines or seizures
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Norepinephrine
affects levels of alertness
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endorphins
bodys natural painkillers
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Vesicles -
small membrane sacs that specialize in moving products into, out of, and within a cell
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receptor sites
Locations on neurons receiving incoming messages; neurotransmitters fit into these sites
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Pre synaptic nueron
A neuron that is about to receive a neurotransmitter from the neuron across the synaptic gap.
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postsynaptic nueron
is the membrane that receives a signal (binds neurotransmitter)
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nuerotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons that generate the next neural impulse.
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endorphins
Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked with pain control & pleasure.
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Reuptake
The reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron.
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Excitatory neurotransmitters -
- send signals that stimulate the brain
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Inhibitory neurotransmitters -
send signals to calm the brain down and create balance.
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agonists
chemicals that activate the receptors for certain neurotransmitters and make the effects of neurotransmitters stronger
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whats caffeine an agonist for
achetylcholine
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SSRIs
increase the amount of serotonin available to the brain, and are commonly prescribed for depression.
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Adderall, methamphetamine, cocaine, and speed:
agonists of norepinephrine. When these drugs increase the excitatory effects of norepinephrine, they create feelings of euphoria and extreme alertness.
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Benzodiazepines and alcohol:
agonists of GABA.
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Opiates (morphine, oxycodone, heroin, etc.):
agonists of endorphins
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antagonists
chemicals that inhibit the actions of neurotransmitters
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LSD
antagonist for serotonin.
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reuptake inhibitors
-drugs that prevent the axon terminals from engaging in the reuptake of neurotransmitters.
-Cocaine, for instance, is a reuptake inhibitor for dopamine. Its stimulating effects are caused by extra dopamine leftover in the synaptic gap.
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psychoactive drugs
chemical substances that alter perceptions, mood, or behavior
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depressants
lower neural activity and slow body functioning
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alcohol
slows neural processing and thinking and impairs physical activity
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opiates
drugs that reduce neurotransmission and temporarily lessen pain and anxiety
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stimulants
drugs that speed up the body’s functions
Caffeine, Nicotine, Cocaine, meth, Amphetamines
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hallucinagens
drugs that distort perceptions of reality
LSD, Marijuana
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tolerance
after long-term use the brain then produces less of that specific neurotransmitter - this creates a need for increasing amounts of the drug to experience the same effect
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withdrawal
set of symptoms associated with discontinuing a drug - reverses neuroadaptation
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addiction
craving for a chemical substance despite its adverse effects
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substane abuse disorder
continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk
103
endocrine system
releases hormones into the bloodstream
104
brainstem
controls automatic movements
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medulla
controls heartrate,breathing,blood pressure
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reticular formation
plays an important role in controlling arousal (wakefulness)
107
cerebellum
controls muscle tones and balance, coordination of movement, and some procedural learning
108
pons
plays a role with sleep and dreaming
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limbic system
associated with emotions and drives
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thalamus
relays sensory information, receives and directs sensory information from the visual and auditory systems
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hippocampus
processes and integrates memories
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amygdala
The amygdala is the center of emotion and is responsible for fear and aggressive responses
also can be associated with memory
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hypothalamus
controls water in the body, controls hunger and sex drives
114
cerebral cortex
wrinkled outer layer of the brain
controls thinking, memory, and decision-making.
115
hemisphere
the brain has two hemispheres, the left and the right. The left controls the right side of the body and the right controls the left side of the body.
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left hemisphere
language processing
math
controls right side of body
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right hemisphere
Visual & spatial skills
Art & music
Emotions
Big-picture thinking
Controls left side of body
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corpus collosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
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frontal lobe
think, plan, and control actions
when the frontal lobe is impaired it can lead to difficulties with thinking, decision-making, planning, and controlling emotions or behaviors. People may act impulsively or have trouble with memory and problem-solving.
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prefrontal cortex
making decisions, controlling impulses, and planning ahead. It helps you think about the future and make choices based on reasoning. part of the frontal lobe
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parietal lobe
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear;
receives sensory input for touch and body position
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occipital lobe
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head;
includes areas that receive information from the visual fields, contains the visual cortex
123
temporal lobe
portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears;
includes the auditory areas and helps with hearing and meaningful speech, contains the primary auditory cortex
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motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
sends out motor information
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sensory cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
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auditory cortex
the part of the temporal lobe that processes auditory information in humans and many other vertebrates.
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visual cortex
the primary cortical region of the brain that receives, integrates, and processes visual information relayed from the retinas
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association areas
areas in the cerebral cortex involved in higher mental function.
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basal ganglia
is a group of nuclei that function as a unit. It plays a role in the goal-directed control of voluntary movements (like picking up a piece of fruit with your hand) and routine behaviors.
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Broca’s Area
located in the left hemisphere in the frontal lobe. This area is responsible for speech production and language comprehension. Damage to this area can result in Broca’s aphasia.
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wernickes area
located in the back of the temporal lobe near the occipital lobe of the left cerebral hemisphere and is involved in understanding written and spoken language. Damage to this area is called Wernicke’s Aphasia.
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brain lesions
tissue that is destroyed (disease, Traumatic Brain Injuries, drug abuse, etc).
We can analyze brain lesions and determine what was destroyed and the resulting changes in behavior
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contralateral processing
the ability of non split brain patients to use both hemisphere and integrate information between them via the corpus callosum
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EEG
-electrodes are placed on scalp
-very useful in sleep studies
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CT scan/CAT scan
a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure (CAT scan)
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PET scan
provide images via diffusion of radioactive glucose in the brain. the more glucose in a area the more that areas in active use
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MRI scan
uses extremely powerful electromagnets and waves to get 3D structural info about the brain
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FMRI
Shows which parts of the brain are active by tracking blood flow.
🧠 More blood = more brain activity
139
split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them
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What did neuroscientists Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga discover about visual information in the brain?
they found that visual information gets “stuck” in one hemisphere when the corpus callosum is severed.
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How does each eye process the visual field?
Each eye takes in information from the entire visual field.
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Where is visual information from the right side of the visual field sent?
To the left hemisphere of the brain.
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Where is visual information from the left side of the visual field sent?
To the right hemisphere of the brain.
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what role does the corpus callosum play in visual processing?
it allows visual information to be shared and combined between the two hemispheres.
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What happens to visual information in split-brain patients (severed corpus callosum)?
Each hemisphere processes information independently, and communication between them is blocked.
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In split-brain patients, what occurs if an image is shown to the left visual field?
The right hemisphere sees it but cannot verbalize it; however, the patient may be able to draw it with the left hand.
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Neuroplasticity
reorganization of neural pathways as a result of experience
When a hemisphere is removed from a young child, that child develops what would otherwise be lateralized skills in the remaining hemisphere.
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Circadian Rhythm -
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms
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suprachiasmatic nucleus
controls your circadian rythm
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melatonin
the sleep hormone - into the bloodstream
151
if all time cues are removed how long is our circadian rythm
25 hours
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Beta waves
awake, alert, anxious - quick, rapid
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alpha waves
relaxed, ready for sleep (may see hallucinations just before falling asleep)
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Theta waves
stages 1 and 2 of NREM sleep
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delta waves
deep sleep; stage 3 of NREM -- At some point we shift from being awake to sleep, but we do not perceive that moment
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sleep pattern
Roughly 90-minute segments and you have about 4-6 cycles per night
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NREM 1-
½ awake / ½ asleep
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NREM 2-
light sleep - associated with sleep talking
-sleep spindles
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sleep spindles
K-complexes - large, high-voltage waves that often appear in response to such outside stimuli as sounds
They help protect sleep by blocking out external noises and disturbances.
They’re linked to learning and memory, especially in moving short-term memories into long-term storage.
More spindles can mean better cognitive abilities like reasoning and problem-solvi
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NREM 3-
Deep Sleep
Hormones for growth in children, Immune system refreshes itself
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REM sleep
rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur
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what type of waves occur during REM sleep
beta
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as night goes on what changes occur in our sleep cycle?
NREM 3 diminishes and eventually disappears. and REM sleep gets longer.
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REM rebound
when you go into extra REM sleep after not getting enough of it before.
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Sleep deprivation
occurs when an individual fails to get enough sleep. Can cause memory loss, weak immune system, weight gain, reduced energy, etc
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why do we sleep?
Helps restore health and efficiency, Sleep helps us to process & consolidate new memories, helps us replay and process stressors from the day through dreaming
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dreams
include all images, events, sounds, and other sensations experienced during sleep
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manifest content
what we recall from the “storyline” of our dreams
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latent content
underlying meaning of the dream
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wish fulfilment theory
Dreams are the key to understanding our inner conflicts.
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information processing theory
Dreams act to sort out and understand the memories that you experience that day.
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problem solving theory
we dream to help our brains work through problems and challenges from our daily lives.
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activation synthesis theory
During the night our brain stem releases random neural activity, dreams may be a way to make sense of that activity.
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dyssomnia
abnormalities in the amount quality or timing of sleep
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Insomnia
Inability to fall asleep or stay asleep. Treatment include reduction of caffeine, set sleep schedule, etc
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narcolepsy
A disease marked by sudden & irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking periods. Treatments include medication, changing sleep patterns, and introduction of naps during the day
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sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. Treatments include respiration machine
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parasomnias
abnormalities of movement during deep sleep they include sleepwalking and night terrors
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night terrors
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
