Unit 2: Biological Bases Flashcards
(125 cards)
1
Q
Neuron
A
A nerve cell, the basic building block of the nervous system
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Cell Body
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Part of the neuron that contains the nucleus, the cell’s life-support centre
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Dendrites
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A neutron’s (often bushy) branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body
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Axon
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The neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles/glands
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Myelin Sheath
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Fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons, enables greater transmission speed
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Glial Cells
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Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. Also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory
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Action Potential
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A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon / a neural impulse
8
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Threshold
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Level of simulation required to trigger a neural impulse
9
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Refractory Period
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- A brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired
- A resting period that occurs after orgasm.
The action cannot be repeated until things are returned to their resting state
10
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All-or-None Response
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A neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or no firing
11
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Synapse
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Junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite/cell body of the receiving neuron
The gap at the junction is called the synaptic gap, or synaptic cleft
12
Q
Neurotransmitters
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Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. After crossing the synapse and binding to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, they influence whether the neuron will generate a neural impulse
13
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Reuptake
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A neurotransmitters reabsorption by the sending neuron
14
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Endorphins
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“Morphine within” - natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure
15
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Agonist
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Molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action
16
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Antagonist
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Molecule that inhibits/blocks a neurotransmitter’s action
17
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Nervous System
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The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
18
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Central Nervous System
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The brain and spinal cord
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Peripheral Nervous System
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The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body
20
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Nerves
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Bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
21
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Sensory (Afferent) Neurons
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Neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
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Motor (Efferent) Neurons
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Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
23
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Interneurons
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Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
24
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Somatic Nervous System
A
The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system
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Autonomic Nervous System
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms
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Sympathetic Nervous System
The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
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Reflex
A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus
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Endocrine System
The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
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Hormones
Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
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Adrenal Glands
A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress
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Pituitary Gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influences of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
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Lesion
Naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
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EEG (Electroencephalogram)
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. Measured by electrodes placed on scalp
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MEG (Magnetoencephalography)
A brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity
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CT Scan (Computed Tomography)
Series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure (AKA CAT scan)
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PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography)
Visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
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MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
Technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy
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FMRI (Functional MRI)
Technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure
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Brain Stem
The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull, responsible for automatic survival functions
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Medulla
The base of the brainstem. Controls heartbeat and breathing
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Reticular Formation
Nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus. Plays an important role in controlling arousal
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Cerebellum
The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem. Functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory
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Limbic System
Neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres, associated with emotions and drives. Includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus
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Amygdala
Two lima-bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system that are lined to emotions of fear or aggression
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Hypothalamus
Neural structure below the thalamus. Directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward
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Hippocampus
Neural centre located in the limbic system. Helps process storage for explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events
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Cerebral Cortex
Intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres. The body's ultimate control and information processing centre
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Frontal Lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead, involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements
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Parietal Lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and towards the rear that receives sensory input for touch and body position
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Occipital Lobes
The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head, that includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
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Temporal Lobes
The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears that includes the auditory areas, each of which primarily receives information from the opposite ear
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Motor Cortex
Area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
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Somatosensory Cortex
Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
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Association Areas
Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions. Instead they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
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Plasticity
The brains ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or building new pathways based on experience
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Neurogenesis
The formation of new neurons
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Corpus Callosum
The large band of neural fibres connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
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Split Brain
A condition resulting from a surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibres connecting them (mainly those in the corpus callosum)
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Consciousness
Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment
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Cognitive Neuroscience
Interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
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Dual Processing
Principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
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Blindsight
A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
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Parallel Processing
Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brains natural mode of information processing for many functions
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Sequential Processing
Processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems
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Behaviour Genetics
The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behaviour
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Heredity
The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring
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Environment
Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
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Chromosomes
Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
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DNA (deoxyribonulic acid)
A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
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Genes
The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins
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Genome
The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
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Identical (monozygotic) Twins
Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
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Fraternal (dizygotic) Twins
Develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment.
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Heritability
The proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.
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Interaction
The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
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Molecular Genetics
The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes
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Molecular Behaviour Genetics
The study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior
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Epigenetics
The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
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Evolutionary Psychology
The study of the evolution of behaviour and the mind, using principles of natural selection
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Natural Selection
The principle that inherited traits are better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
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Mutation
A random error in gene replication that leads to a change
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Social Script
A culturally modelled guide for how to act in various situations
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Paul Broca
Identified the part of the brain in the left frontal lobe that is responsible for speech production
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Carl Wernicke
Identified the part of the brain in the left temporal lobe that is responsible for speech comprehension
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Roger Sperry
Discovered that the brain is made of two hemispheres with unique functions
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Michael Gazzaniga
Conducted research on split brain patients with an emphasis on understanding the left hemisphere as the speech centre of the brain
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Charles Darwin
Emphasized the natural selection principle as a way of describing human needs for survival and adaptation
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Sleep
A periodic, natural loss of consciousness- as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anaesthesia, or hibernation
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Circadian Rhythm
Our biological clock; regular body rhythms (For example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
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REM Sleep
Rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep state during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active
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Alpha Waves
The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
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NREM Sleep
Non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep states except for REM sleep
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Hallucinations
False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
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Hypnagogic Sensations
Bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, which transitioning to sleep
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Delta Waves
The large, slow brain waves associated with the deep sleep of NREM-3
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Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
A pair of cell cluster in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
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Insomnia
Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
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Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times
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Sleep Apnea
A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
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Night Terrors
A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; occurs during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
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Dream
A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind
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Manifest Content
According to Freud, the symbolic, remembered story line of a dream
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Latent Content
According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream
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REM Rebound
The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
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Psychoactive Drug
A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
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Substance Use Disorder
A disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk
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Tolerance
The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
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Withdrawal
The discomfort and distress that follow the discontinuing in an addictive drug or behavior
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Depressants
Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
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Alcohol Use Disorder
(Popularly known as alcoholism) Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use
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Barbiturates
Drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement
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Opiates
Opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin, depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
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Stimulants
Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamine, and ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
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Nicotine
A stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco
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Cocaine
A powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant; produces temporarily increased alertness and euphoria
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Amphetamines
Drugs, such as methamphetamine, that stimulate neural activity, causing accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes
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Methamphetamines
A powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels
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Ecstasy (MDMA)
A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition
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Hallucinogens
Psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
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Near-Death Experience
An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such a a cardiac arrest); often similar to drug induced hallucinations
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LSD
A powerful hallucinogenic drug, also known as acid
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THC
The major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations
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Sigmund Freud
Proposed that dreams have both manifest and latent content, emphasizing wish fulfilment in dream interpretation
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William James
Created functionalist theory as well as the idea of a "stream of consciousness" where moments flow into one another despite alterations in our various states of consciousness
