Unit 4 Lab S Flashcards
(271 cards)
1
Q
What is the function of the Human Respiratory System?
A
Exchange of gases such as oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
2
Q
What are the four general steps performed by the Respiratory System?
A
- Ventilation
- External respiration
- Transport of gases
- Internal respiration
3
Q
Gases diffuse in which direction along their Partial Pressure Gradient?
A
High-to-Low
4
Q
Why are tissue cells always low in O2 and high in CO2?
A
Due to Cellular Respiration.
5
Q
What is the Conducting Zone?
A
The part of the respiratory system that includes structures for air passage and filtration.
6
Q
What structures are included in the Conducting Zone?
A
- Nose
- Nasal Cavity
- Pharynx
- Larynx
- Trachea
- Bronchi
- Bronchioles
7
Q
What is the Respiratory Zone?
A
The part of the respiratory system where gas exchange occurs.
8
Q
What structures are included in the Respiratory Zone?
A
- Alveoli
- Alveolar Ducts
- Respiratory Bronchioles
9
Q
What is the External Naris?
A
The external opening of the nostrils, made of cartilage.
10
Q
What are Choanae (Internal Nares) and why are they important?
A
They are openings between the nasal cavity and the pharynx, important for airflow.
11
Q
What are Nasal Conchae and why are they important?
A
They are bony structures that create turbulence in the air, helping to warm and humidify it.
12
Q
What is an important role of the Nasal Cavity?
A
To heat and humidify air.
13
Q
What are Sinuses?
A
Air-filled spaces in the skull that likely perform various functions such as lightening the skull and enhancing voice resonance.
14
Q
Generally, how many types of Sinuses are there in our skull?
A
Four types.
15
Q
What is Mucus?
A
A viscous secretion important for trapping particles and keeping the respiratory tract moist.
16
Q
Why are Cilia important in the Respiratory Epithelia Cells?
A
They help move mucus and trapped particles out of the airways.
17
Q
What are some important features of the Respiratory Mucosa?
A
- Ciliated Epithelia
- Goblet Cells
- Seromucous Glands
18
Q
Where is the Nasopharynx located?
A
Above the soft palate.
19
Q
What important structures are located in the Nasopharynx?
A
- Soft Palate
- Uvula
- Pharyngeal Tonsil
20
Q
Where is the Oropharynx located?
A
Between the soft palate and the epiglottis.
21
Q
Why does the cell surface morphology of the Oropharynx change?
A
To adapt to the different functions of the area, including protection from abrasion.
22
Q
What structures are located in the Oropharynx?
A
- Isthmus of Fauces
- Lingual Tonsil
- Palatine Tonsil
23
Q
Where is the Laryngopharynx located?
A
Below the oropharynx and next to the esophagus.
24
Q
What structure is next to the Laryngopharynx?
A
Esophagus
25
What are Tonsils?
Lymphoid tissues that help in immune defense.
26
Where are Tonsils located?
In the pharyngeal region, including the nasopharynx and oropharynx.
27
What are the main functions of the Larynx?
Functions include:
* Voice production
* Airway protection
* Breathing regulation
28
What type of cartilage typically makes up the structure of the Larynx?
Hyaline cartilage
29
How many types of cartilages are present in the Larynx and what do they do?
There are 5 types of cartilages that provide structure and support
30
What is the Epiglottis?
A flap that covers the larynx during swallowing
31
Does the Epiglottis use the same cartilage as the other Laryngeal structures?
No, it is made of elastic cartilage
32
Identify the following cartilage: Thyroid Cartilage
The largest cartilage of the larynx, forming the Adam's apple
33
Identify the following cartilage: Cricoid Cartilage
A ring-shaped cartilage located below the thyroid cartilage
34
Identify the following cartilage: Arytenoid Cartilage
Pyramid-shaped cartilages that anchor the vocal cords
35
Identify the following cartilage: Corniculate Cartilage
Small cartilages that sit atop the arytenoids
36
Identify the following muscle: Posterior Cricoarytenoid Muscle
The only muscle that opens the vocal cords
37
Identify the following muscle: Thyroarytenoid (Vocalis) Muscle
A muscle involved in voice modulation
38
What is the difference between Tracheal Cartilage and Cricoid Cartilage?
Tracheal cartilage is C-shaped, while cricoid cartilage is a complete ring
39
What is the Valsalva Maneuver?
A technique used to increase pressure in the thoracic cavity
40
What is the Trachea?
A tube that connects the larynx to the bronchi
41
What are the functions and features of the Trachea?
Functions include airway passage; features include C-shaped cartilage rings
42
Describe the cartilage structures that keep the Trachea open.
C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings
43
Does the Trachea have Respiratory Epithelia / Mucosa?
Yes
44
What is the Trachealis Muscle?
A muscle that connects the ends of the tracheal cartilage rings
45
Why is the Trachealis Muscle important?
It allows for flexibility and constriction of the trachea
46
Identify the following structure on Histology Slides: Hyaline Cartilage
C-shaped cartilages that form the trachea
47
Identify the following structure on Histology Slides: Trachealis Muscle
Muscle layer found at the back of the trachea
48
Identify the following structure on Histology Slides: Seromucous Glands
Glands that produce mucus and serous fluid in the trachea
49
Identify the following structure on Histology Slides: Esophagus
The muscular tube behind the trachea
50
Identify the following structure on Histology Slides: Goblet Cells (High Magnification)
Cells that secrete mucus in the respiratory tract
51
Identify the following structure on Histology Slides: Ciliated Cells (High Magnification)
Cells that have cilia to help move mucus
52
Why is it important that the Bronchi branch many times?
To expand surface area for gas exchange
53
Which Main Bronchus is wider and fatter?
RIGHT Main Bronchus
54
How can you distinguish between Bronchi and Bronchioles on a Histology Slide?
Bronchi have cartilage; bronchioles do not
55
What happens to the anatomy of Bronchi as they branch into smaller Bronchioles?
Lose cartilage, thinner epithelia, lose Goblet Cells, lose cilia, less mucus
56
Know the order of Bronchi/ Bronchiole Branching.
Order is:
* Main Bronchi
* Secondary (Lobar) Bronchi
* Tertiary (Segmental) Bronchi
* Bronchioles
* Terminal Bronchioles
* Respiratory Bronchioles
57
What are Alveoli? What is their job in the Respiratory System?
Alveoli are small air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs.
58
What cellular anatomy features help Alveoli do their job?
Thin walls for efficient gas exchange and large surface area.
59
How are Alveoli arranged? Why are they covered in Capillaries?
Alveoli are clustered in clusters and covered in capillaries to facilitate gas exchange.
60
What is Surfactant? Why is it important to Alveoli?
Surfactant is a substance that reduces surface tension in alveoli, preventing collapse.
61
Is there Mucus in Alveoli?
No.
62
What is the Respiratory Zone? Which structures are included in this zone?
The Respiratory Zone is the region of the lungs where gas exchange occurs, including respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveolar sacs.
63
Identify the following structures: Terminal Bronchioles, Respiratory Bronchioles, Alveolar Duct, Alveolar Sac, Alveolus (Individual)
Terminal Bronchioles, Respiratory Bronchioles, Alveolar Duct, Alveolar Sac, Alveolus.
64
What are the functions of Type I Alveolar Cells?
Type I Alveolar Cells facilitate gas exchange.
65
What are the functions of Type II Alveolar Cells?
Type II Alveolar Cells produce surfactant.
66
What is the role of Macrophage in the Alveoli?
Macrophages help in the immune defense by removing pathogens and debris.
67
What is the function of Alveolar Pores?
Alveolar Pores equalize pressure between alveoli.
68
Locate and define the Bronchial Tree.
The Bronchial Tree is the branching system of bronchi and bronchioles leading to the alveoli.
69
What is the Left Inferior Lobe?
The Left Inferior Lobe is one of the lobes of the left lung.
70
What is Visceral Pleura?
Visceral Pleura is the membrane covering the lungs.
71
What is the Cardiac Notch?
The Cardiac Notch is an indentation in the left lung accommodating the heart.
72
What is Parietal Pleura?
Parietal Pleura is the membrane lining the thoracic cavity.
73
What are Oblique Fissures?
Oblique Fissures are the grooves separating the lobes of the lungs.
74
What is the Pleural Cavity?
The Pleural Cavity is the space between the visceral and parietal pleura.
75
What is the Hilum of Lungs?
The Hilum is the area where blood vessels and bronchi enter the lungs.
76
What is the Right Lung?
The Right Lung is one of the two lungs, larger than the left lung.
77
What is the Apex of Lungs?
The Apex is the top part of the lungs.
78
What is the Right Superior Lobe?
The Right Superior Lobe is the upper lobe of the right lung.
79
What is the Base of Lungs?
The Base is the bottom part of the lungs.
80
What is the Right Middle Lobe?
The Right Middle Lobe is the middle lobe of the right lung.
81
What is the Thoracic Cavity?
The Thoracic Cavity is the chamber containing the lungs and heart.
82
What is the Right Inferior Lobe?
The Right Inferior Lobe is the lower lobe of the right lung.
83
What is the Diaphragm?
The Diaphragm is the muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.
84
What is the Left Lung?
The Left Lung is one of the two lungs, smaller than the right lung.
85
What are Intercostal Muscles?
Intercostal Muscles are the muscles located between the ribs that assist in breathing.
86
What is the Left Superior Lobe?
The Left Superior Lobe is the upper lobe of the left lung.
87
What is the Rib Cage?
The Rib Cage is the bony structure protecting the thoracic cavity.
88
What is the Bronchial Tree?
A branching system of airways that conducts air from the trachea to the lungs and includes bronchi and bronchioles
## Footnote
The Bronchial Tree is crucial for air distribution within the lungs.
89
Where is the Left Inferior Lobe located?
It is one of the two lobes of the left lung, situated below the Left Superior Lobe
## Footnote
The Left Inferior Lobe is important for gas exchange.
90
What is the Visceral Pleura?
The inner membrane that directly covers the lungs
## Footnote
It helps reduce friction during breathing.
91
What is the Cardiac Notch?
A concave space in the left lung that accommodates the heart
## Footnote
This anatomical feature is specific to the left lung.
92
What is the Parietal Pleura?
The outer membrane that lines the thoracic cavity
## Footnote
It provides a lubricated surface for lung expansion.
93
What are Oblique Fissures?
The fissures that separate the lobes of the lungs diagonally
## Footnote
They are found in both lungs, dividing the lobes.
94
What is the Pleural Cavity?
The space between the visceral and parietal pleura containing pleural fluid
## Footnote
This cavity helps maintain lung inflation.
95
What is the Hilum of Lungs?
The region where blood vessels and bronchi enter and exit the lungs
## Footnote
It is a critical area for lung function.
96
What is the Right Lung?
The larger lung with three lobes: Right Superior Lobe, Right Middle Lobe, Right Inferior Lobe
## Footnote
It plays a significant role in respiration.
97
What is the Apex of Lungs?
The topmost part of the lungs, located above the clavicle
## Footnote
It is involved in the overall structure of the lungs.
98
What is the Right Superior Lobe?
The uppermost lobe of the right lung
## Footnote
It is important for gas exchange.
99
What is the Base of Lungs?
The bottom surface of the lungs that rests on the diaphragm
## Footnote
It is crucial for lung expansion during breathing.
100
What is the Right Middle Lobe?
The lobe located between the Right Superior Lobe and Right Inferior Lobe
## Footnote
It is part of the right lung's structure.
101
What is the Thoracic Cavity?
The chamber of the body that houses the lungs and heart
## Footnote
It is vital for respiratory and circulatory functions.
102
What is the Right Inferior Lobe?
The lower lobe of the right lung
## Footnote
It plays a role in oxygen exchange.
103
What is the Diaphragm?
A dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity
## Footnote
It is essential for the inhalation process.
104
What is the Left Lung?
The lung with two lobes: Left Superior Lobe and Left Inferior Lobe
## Footnote
It is smaller than the right lung due to the heart's position.
105
What are Intercostal Muscles?
Muscles located between the ribs that assist in breathing
## Footnote
They play a significant role in ventilation.
106
What is the Left Superior Lobe?
The upper lobe of the left lung
## Footnote
It is critical for effective gas exchange.
107
What is the Rib Cage?
The bony structure that surrounds and protects the thoracic cavity
## Footnote
It provides support for respiratory muscles.
108
What is Stroma?
Connective tissue that holds the lungs together
## Footnote
It supports the lung structure and function.
109
What is Boyle's Law?
P1V1 = P2V2, stating that pressure and volume are inversely related
## Footnote
It is fundamental to understanding ventilation.
110
How does Boyle's Law lead to Ventilation?
Changes in lung volume alter pressure, causing air to flow in or out
## Footnote
This principle is essential for breathing mechanics.
111
What role does the Diaphragm and Intercostal Muscles play in Ventilation?
They contract to increase thoracic volume, facilitating inhalation
## Footnote
Their coordinated action is crucial for effective breathing.
112
What is the process of Inhalation?
The process of drawing air into the lungs by expanding the thoracic cavity
## Footnote
It involves diaphragm contraction and intercostal muscle activity.
113
What is the process of Exhalation?
The process of expelling air from the lungs by decreasing thoracic volume
## Footnote
It typically involves relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.
114
What forces act to keep the Lungs expanded?
Intrapleural pressure and the elasticity of lung tissue
## Footnote
These forces are crucial for maintaining lung inflation.
115
True or False: Intrapleural Pressure is always negative compared to pressure in Lungs.
True
## Footnote
This negative pressure is essential for lung expansion.
116
What additional muscles get used during FORCED Inhalation and Exhalation?
Accessory muscles such as sternocleidomastoid and abdominal muscles
## Footnote
They enhance respiratory effort during intense activity.
117
What does a Spirometer measure?
The volume of air inhaled and exhaled during breathing
## Footnote
It is a key tool for assessing lung function.
118
What is a Spirograph?
A graphical representation of airflow and volumes during respiration
## Footnote
It is used to analyze lung function over time.
119
Fill in the blank: The Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) is the volume of air that can be inhaled after a normal breath, measured in _______.
ml/kg
120
Fill in the blank: The Vital Capacity (VC) is the total volume of air that can be exhaled after a maximal inhalation, also known as _______.
Ve
121
Fill in the blank: The Total Lung Capacity (TLC) includes all the volumes and is the sum of _______.
Vital Capacity and Residual Volume
122
What is Tidal Volume (TV)?
The amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing
## Footnote
It is a fundamental measure in respiratory assessments.
123
What is the Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)?
The volume of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal expiration
## Footnote
It indicates lung capacity and function.
124
What is Residual Volume (RV)?
The volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximal exhalation
## Footnote
It prevents lung collapse.
125
What is Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)?
The volume of air remaining in the lungs after normal expiration
## Footnote
It is important in assessing respiratory health.
126
What are Respiratory Volumes?
Respiratory Volumes are measurements of the different volumes of air that can be inhaled and exhaled during various phases of the breathing cycle.
127
Define Tidal Volume (TV)
Tidal Volume (TV) is the amount of air inhaled or exhaled during a normal breath.
128
Define Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) is the additional air that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation.
129
Define Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) is the additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation.
130
Define Residual Volume (RV)
Residual Volume (RV) is the amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation.
131
What is Vital Capacity (VC)?
Vital Capacity (VC) is the maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation.
132
What is Total Lung Capacity (TLC)?
Total Lung Capacity (TLC) is the total volume of air the lungs can hold, including all respiratory volumes.
133
Define Inspiratory Capacity (IC)
Inspiratory Capacity (IC) is the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal exhalation.
134
What is Functional Residual Capacity?
Functional Residual Capacity is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal exhalation.
135
What is Minute Ventilation (MV)?
Minute Ventilation (MV) is the total volume of air inhaled or exhaled in one minute.
136
What is Alveolar Ventilation Rate (AVR)?
Alveolar Ventilation Rate (AVR) is the volume of fresh air that reaches the alveoli per minute.
137
What capacity is important for the Heimlich Maneuver?
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) is important for the Heimlich Maneuver.
138
What is Dead Space?
Dead Space refers to areas of the respiratory system where air does not participate in gas exchange.
139
What are the two types of Dead Space?
The two types of Dead Space are:
* Anatomical Dead Space
* Alveolar Dead Space
140
Fill in the blank: Anatomical Dead Space is where air cannot get out of the _______ due to structure.
conducting zone
141
Fill in the blank: Alveolar Dead Space occurs due to collapsed, obstructed, or damaged _______.
Alveoli
142
What are the structures in the Urinary System?
Kidneys, Ureters, Bladder, Urethra
## Footnote
These are the primary components of the urinary system.
143
What is the Kidney? What does it do?
An organ that filters blood and produces urine
## Footnote
The kidney is essential for maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance.
144
What is the functional unit of the Kidney?
Nephron tubule
## Footnote
Nephrons are responsible for the filtration and reabsorption processes in the kidney.
145
What are the physiological jobs that the Kidney performs?
* Filtration of blood
* Regulation of electrolytes
* Regulation of blood pressure
* Acid-base balance
* Production of urine
## Footnote
These functions are critical for homeostasis.
146
Where is the Kidney located?
In the retroperitoneal space, behind the peritoneum
## Footnote
This position allows for protection and support of the kidneys.
147
What is the 'Retroperitoneal Position'?
Location of the kidneys outside the peritoneal cavity
## Footnote
This position is significant for surgical approaches and anatomical relationships.
148
What is the Renal Hilum?
The entry and exit point for blood vessels, nerves, and ureters
## Footnote
It serves as the gateway for structures entering and leaving the kidney.
149
What enters through the Renal Hilum into the Kidney?
* Renal arteries
* Renal veins
* Ureters
## Footnote
These structures are crucial for kidney function and urine transport.
150
Why is the Right Renal Artery longer?
Because it has to travel further to reach the right kidney
## Footnote
The aorta is positioned slightly to the left of the midline.
151
Why is the Left Renal Vein longer?
It must cross over the aorta to return blood to the heart
## Footnote
This anatomical arrangement can impact surgical approaches.
152
What are the three support layers that surround the Kidney?
* Renal Fascia
* Perirenal Fat Capsule
* Fibrous Capsule
## Footnote
These layers provide protection and structural integrity.
153
What is the function of the Renal Fascia?
Anchors the organ and provides support in the body cavity
## Footnote
It helps to stabilize the position of the kidneys.
154
What is the function of the Perirenal Fat Capsule?
Cushions the kidneys against impact
## Footnote
This layer also provides thermal insulation.
155
What is the function of the Fibrous Capsule?
Stops infection and contains macrophages
## Footnote
It acts as a barrier against pathogens.
156
Where is the Cortex located?
The outer layer of the kidney
## Footnote
It houses the renal corpuscles and parts of the nephron.
157
What is housed in the Cortex?
Renal corpuscles and cortical nephrons
## Footnote
These structures are essential for filtration.
158
Where is the Medulla located?
The inner layer of the kidney
## Footnote
It contains the renal pyramids and collecting ducts.
159
What is housed in the Medulla?
Medullary pyramids and collecting ducts
## Footnote
These structures are involved in urine concentration.
160
What are Medullar Pyramids?
Triangular structures within the medulla
## Footnote
They are essential for urine collection and transport.
161
Do Renal Columns have tubules (i.e. Nephrons)?
No
## Footnote
Renal columns primarily consist of blood vessels and connective tissue.
162
What are the Medullar Papilla?
Tips of the renal pyramids where collection ducts merge
## Footnote
They direct urine into the minor calyces.
163
What are Minor Calyces?
Small cup-like structures formed from merging medullar papillae
## Footnote
They collect urine from the renal papillae.
164
What are Major Calyces?
Larger structures formed from merging minor calyces
## Footnote
They further collect urine before it moves to the pelvis.
165
What is the Pelvis?
The funnel-shaped structure formed from merging major calyces
## Footnote
It serves as the collection point before urine enters the ureter.
166
What structures should be identified on gross anatomy diagrams?
* Cortex
* Medulla
* Medullar Pyramid
* Renal Column
* Blood Vessels
* Renal Corpuscle
* Bowman's Capsule
* Bowman's Space
* Glomerulus
* Medullar Papilla
* Minor Calyx
* Major Calyx
* Pelvis
## Footnote
These structures are critical for understanding kidney anatomy.
167
What is the Ureter?
The tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder
## Footnote
Ureters are essential for urine transport.
168
What is the first vessel in the blood supply path to the Nephrons?
Abdominal Aorta
169
What artery branches off from the Abdominal Aorta to supply the kidneys?
Renal Artery
170
List the arteries in the blood supply path to the Nephrons in order.
* Abdominal Aorta
* Renal Artery
* Segmental Arteries
* Interlobar Arteries
* Arcuate Arteries
* Cortical Radial Arteries
* Afferent Arteriole
171
What structure do the Afferent Arterioles supply?
Glomerulus
172
What is the next step in the blood supply path after the Glomerulus?
Efferent Arterioles
173
What do the Efferent Arterioles lead to?
Peritubular Capillaries
174
What additional structure is present if Juxtamedullary Nephrons are involved?
Vasa Recta
175
What is the last vessel in the blood supply path before the Inferior Vena Cava?
Renal Vein
176
True or False: There are Segmental Veins in the blood supply path to the Nephrons.
False
177
What is the functional unit of the Kidney?
Nephron
178
What are the two types of Nephrons?
* Cortical Nephrons
* Juxtamedullary Nephrons
179
Where are the Glomeruli of Cortical Nephrons located?
Cortex of the kidney
180
Where are the Glomeruli of Juxtamedullary Nephrons located?
Near the medulla of the kidney
181
What is a key difference between Cortical Nephrons and Juxtamedullary Nephrons?
Juxtamedullary Nephrons have a very long Nephron Loop (Loop of Henle)
182
Identify the following on Diagrams and/or Histology Slides: What is the Renal Corpuscle?
The structure that includes the Glomerulus and Bowman's Capsule
183
What is the function of the Glomerular (Bowman's) Capsule?
To encase the Glomerulus and collect filtrate
184
What are the two layers of the Glomerular Capsule?
* Parietal Layer of Glomerular Capsule
* Visceral Layer of Glomerular Capsule
185
What is found in Bowman's Space?
Filtrate collected from the Glomerulus
186
What are Podocytes?
Specialized cells in the Visceral Layer of the Glomerular Capsule
187
What do Filtration Slits do?
Allow passage of water and small solutes during filtration
188
What is the Proximal Convoluted Tubule?
The segment of the nephron where reabsorption occurs
189
What feature is present on the Epithelia of the Proximal Convoluted Tubule?
Microvilli (look 'fuzzy')
190
What is the function of the Vasa Recta?
To supply blood to the renal medulla and participate in the countercurrent exchange
191
What is the Nephron Loop also known as?
Loop of Henle
## Footnote
The Nephron Loop is a crucial part of the nephron involved in urine concentration.
192
What is the segment of the Nephron Loop that is referred to as the 'thin' segment?
Descending Limb
## Footnote
The Descending Limb allows for the reabsorption of water.
193
What is the segment of the Nephron Loop that is referred to as the 'thick' segment?
Ascending Limb
## Footnote
The Ascending Limb is involved in the reabsorption of sodium and chloride ions.
194
What is a key characteristic of the Distal Convoluted Tubule?
Lack Microvilli, do NOT look 'fuzzy'
## Footnote
This feature distinguishes the Distal Convoluted Tubule from other nephron segments.
195
What is the final structure in the nephron that collects urine?
Collection Duct
## Footnote
The Collection Duct plays a vital role in the final concentration of urine.
196
What important part of Osmoregulation occurs in the Collection Duct?
ADH acts to decrease Aquaporin channels, to decrease water absorption
## Footnote
This process is critical for maintaining body water balance.
197
What is the Juxtaglomerular Complex (JGC)?
A structure involved in regulating blood pressure in the nephron, including the Afferent Arteriole, Distal Convoluted Tubule, and Top of Ascending Limb of Nephron.
## Footnote
The JGC plays a crucial role in the renal regulation of blood pressure and filtration rate.
198
What cells are involved in regulation of Blood Pressure at the JGC?
* Macula Densa
* Granular Cells
* Extraglomerular Mesangial Cells
## Footnote
Each of these cell types has specific functions in sensing and responding to changes in blood pressure and sodium levels.
199
What do Macula Densa Cells detect?
Levels of NaCl in Filtrate.
## Footnote
These cells are sensitive to sodium chloride concentrations and play a key role in regulating glomerular filtration rate.
200
What is Renin?
An enzyme secreted by Granular Cells that helps regulate blood pressure.
## Footnote
Renin initiates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), which is crucial for blood pressure regulation.
201
What is Angiotensin?
A hormone that activates the adrenal gland to release aldosterone.
## Footnote
Angiotensin plays a significant role in regulating blood pressure and fluid balance.
202
What is Aldosterone, and where/how does it act?
A hormone that increases Na+ uptake in the Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT).
## Footnote
Aldosterone also promotes water retention, influencing blood volume and pressure.
203
What is ADH?
Antidiuretic Hormone, which regulates water balance in the body.
## Footnote
ADH is crucial for maintaining blood pressure and fluid homeostasis.
204
What secretes ADH?
The posterior pituitary gland.
## Footnote
ADH is released in response to high plasma osmolality or low blood volume.
205
Where does ADH act, and what does it do?
Acts on the Collecting Duct, increasing water reabsorption via Aquaporins.
## Footnote
This process helps concentrate urine and maintain blood pressure.
206
What is the Ureter?
The tube that carries urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
## Footnote
Ureters are essential for urine transport and play a role in preventing backflow.
207
How do Ureters play an ACTIVE role in transporting Urine?
Through Muscularis contraction and Peristalsis.
## Footnote
This active transport mechanism helps propel urine toward the bladder.
208
How does the position of the intersection between the Ureter and Bladder limit Backflow?
The angle and position create a functional valve that prevents backflow.
## Footnote
This anatomical arrangement is crucial for preventing urinary tract infections.
209
What could happen if there is Backflow from the Ureter to Kidney?
It could lead to infection.
## Footnote
Backflow can cause pyelonephritis, a serious kidney infection.
210
What is the Bladder?
A muscular sac that stores urine.
## Footnote
The bladder can expand and contract to accommodate varying volumes of urine.
211
What is the shape of the Bladder when NOT full of Urine?
Collapsed or folded.
## Footnote
This shape allows the bladder to fill under lower pressure.
212
What advantage does a Bladder that can 'fold' have?
It fills under lower pressure.
## Footnote
This characteristic helps in accommodating larger volumes of urine without damage.
213
What is the Detrusor Muscle?
A smooth muscle that contracts to expel urine from the bladder.
## Footnote
The detrusor muscle is essential for micturition.
214
What is the Internal Urethral Sphincter?
A smooth muscle that involuntarily controls urine flow.
## Footnote
It plays a key role in the retention of urine.
215
What is the External Urethral Sphincter?
A skeletal muscle under voluntary control that regulates urination.
## Footnote
This muscle allows for conscious control over the release of urine.
216
Which of these muscles is under VOLUNTARY control?
External Urethral Sphincter.
## Footnote
This control is crucial for the process of micturition.
217
What is Micturition?
The process of expelling urine from the bladder.
## Footnote
Micturition involves both the autonomic and somatic nervous systems.
218
What is the Trigone?
A triangular area in the bladder that is formed by the openings of the ureters and urethra.
## Footnote
The trigone is important for preventing backflow and for bladder function.
219
What is the Urethra?
The duct through which urine is discharged from the bladder.
## Footnote
The urethra varies in length and function between males and females.
220
What are the approximate normal ranges for Color of Urine?
Pale yellow to amber.
## Footnote
Urine color can indicate hydration status and other health conditions.
221
What are the approximate normal ranges for Odor of Urine?
Slightly aromatic.
## Footnote
Changes in urine odor can indicate dietary factors or health issues.
222
What are the approximate normal ranges for Specific Gravity of Urine?
1.005 to 1.030.
## Footnote
Specific gravity reflects urine concentration and hydration status.
223
What are the approximate normal ranges for pH of Urine?
4.6 to 8.0.
## Footnote
Urine pH can vary with diet and health conditions.
224
What pathologies can cause these characteristics to be outside of 'normal range'?
Dehydration, infections, metabolic disorders, liver disease.
## Footnote
Abnormal urine characteristics can indicate various medical conditions.
225
What does the presence of glucose in urine indicate?
Possible diabetes or renal threshold exceeded
## Footnote
Glucose in urine often suggests that blood sugar levels are high, potentially indicating diabetes mellitus.
226
What does the presence of ketones in urine indicate?
Possible diabetic ketoacidosis or starvation
## Footnote
Ketones are produced when the body breaks down fats for energy, often seen in uncontrolled diabetes or prolonged fasting.
227
What could urobilinogen in urine indicate?
Liver disease or hemolytic disorders
## Footnote
Urobilinogen is a breakdown product of bilirubin; increased levels may suggest liver dysfunction or increased red blood cell destruction.
228
What does the presence of bilirubin in urine indicate?
Liver disease or biliary obstruction
## Footnote
Bilirubin in urine suggests liver dysfunction or an obstruction in the bile ducts, leading to bilirubin leakage into urine.
229
What does hemoglobin in urine indicate?
Hemolysis or urinary tract injury
## Footnote
Hemoglobin in urine can suggest conditions like hemolytic anemia or trauma to the urinary tract.
230
What could the presence of erythrocytes in urine indicate?
Glomerular damage or urinary tract pathology
## Footnote
Erythrocytes in urine may suggest conditions such as glomerulonephritis, kidney stones, or urinary tract infections.
231
What does the presence of leukocytes in urine indicate?
Urinary tract infection or inflammation
## Footnote
Leukocytes are often present in cases of infection or inflammation within the urinary tract.
232
What does the presence of proteins in urine indicate?
Kidney damage or disease
## Footnote
Proteinuria can be a sign of kidney disease, as healthy kidneys typically do not allow significant amounts of protein to pass into urine.
233
What does the presence of bile pigment in urine indicate?
Liver disease or hemolysis
## Footnote
Bile pigments in urine suggest liver dysfunction, where bilirubin is improperly processed or excreted.
234
What does the presence of glucose in urine indicate?
Possible diabetes or renal threshold exceeded
## Footnote
Glucose in urine often suggests that blood sugar levels are high, potentially indicating diabetes mellitus.
235
What does the presence of ketones in urine indicate?
Possible diabetic ketoacidosis or starvation
## Footnote
Ketones are produced when the body breaks down fats for energy, often seen in uncontrolled diabetes or prolonged fasting.
236
What could urobilinogen in urine indicate?
Liver disease or hemolytic disorders
## Footnote
Urobilinogen is a breakdown product of bilirubin; increased levels may suggest liver dysfunction or increased red blood cell destruction.
237
What does the presence of bilirubin in urine indicate?
Liver disease or biliary obstruction
## Footnote
Bilirubin in urine suggests liver dysfunction or an obstruction in the bile ducts, leading to bilirubin leakage into urine.
238
What does hemoglobin in urine indicate?
Hemolysis or urinary tract injury
## Footnote
Hemoglobin in urine can suggest conditions like hemolytic anemia or trauma to the urinary tract.
239
What could the presence of erythrocytes in urine indicate?
Glomerular damage or urinary tract pathology
## Footnote
Erythrocytes in urine may suggest conditions such as glomerulonephritis, kidney stones, or urinary tract infections.
240
What does the presence of leukocytes in urine indicate?
Urinary tract infection or inflammation
## Footnote
Leukocytes are often present in cases of infection or inflammation within the urinary tract.
241
What does the presence of proteins in urine indicate?
Kidney damage or disease
## Footnote
Proteinuria can be a sign of kidney disease, as healthy kidneys typically do not allow significant amounts of protein to pass into urine.
242
What does the presence of bile pigment in urine indicate?
Liver disease or hemolysis
## Footnote
Bile pigments in urine suggest liver dysfunction, where bilirubin is improperly processed or excreted.
243
What is the epiglottis covered in?
Respiratory mucosa
244
What cartilage does the trachealis have?
Smooth muscle, reflexive coughing
245
What does the respiratory mucosa have in it and where is it located
- columnar ciliates cells
- goblet cells
Located in trachea, inner layer
246
What is the primary component found in the submucosa layer of the trachea?
Connective tissue
247
True or False: The submucosa layer of the trachea contains mucous glands.
True
248
Fill in the blank: The submucosa layer of the trachea is responsible for ________ and ________ the trachea.
supporting; nourishing
249
Which type of cells are commonly found in the submucosa of the trachea?
Goblet cells
250
What is one of the functions of the submucosa layer in the trachea?
It provides structural support and contains glands that produce mucus.
251
What cartilage does the small bronchus have?
Hyaline cartilage
252
Do bronchioles contain cartilage?
No, bronchioles do not contain cartilage.
253
What is one major structural difference between bronchi and bronchioles?
Bronchi have cartilage in their walls, while bronchioles do not.
254
True or False: Bronchioles have a larger diameter than bronchi.
False, bronchioles have a smaller diameter than bronchi.
255
Fill in the blank: The walls of bronchioles are primarily composed of __________ and smooth muscle.
epithelium
256
What happens to the amount of smooth muscle as one moves from bronchi to bronchioles?
The amount of smooth muscle increases in bronchioles compared to bronchi.
257
What type of epithelium lines the terminal bronchioles?
Ciliated simple cuboidal epithelium.
258
True or False: Terminal bronchioles contain cartilage.
False.
259
Fill in the blank: Terminal bronchioles do not have __________.
Glands.
260
What is the primary function of terminal bronchioles?
To conduct air to the respiratory bronchioles.
261
Which structure is absent in terminal bronchioles but present in larger bronchioles?
Cartilage.
262
What structures do respiratory bronchioles have that distinguish them from terminal bronchioles?
Respiratory bronchioles have alveoli, which are small air sacs for gas exchange.
263
True or False: Respiratory bronchioles contain cartilage.
False: Respiratory bronchioles do not contain cartilage.
264
Fill in the blank: Respiratory bronchioles are primarily involved in ________ exchange.
gas
265
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of respiratory bronchioles? A) Alveolar openings B) Ciliated epithelium C) Smooth muscle
B) Ciliated epithelium
266
What is the primary function of respiratory bronchioles?
The primary function of respiratory bronchioles is to facilitate gas exchange in the lungs.
267
What is the primary function of alveoli in the lungs?
The primary function of alveoli is to facilitate gas exchange between the air and blood.
268
True or False: Alveoli are made up of simple squamous epithelial tissue.
True
269
Fill in the blank: Alveoli are surrounded by __________, which are tiny blood vessels.
capillaries
270
Which type of cells in the alveoli produce surfactant?
Type II alveolar cells
271
Multiple Choice: What is the name of the thin membrane that separates the air in the alveoli from the blood in the capillaries? A) Alveolar membrane B) Respiratory membrane C) Bronchial membrane D) Pulmonary membrane
B) Respiratory membrane
