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Anatomy P.2 > Unit 4 Lecture S > Flashcards

Unit 4 Lecture S Flashcards

(111 cards)

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1
Q

What is the function of the Human Respiratory System?

A

To exchange gases, specifically oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2)

The respiratory system facilitates the intake of oxygen for cellular processes and the removal of carbon dioxide produced by metabolism.

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2
Q

What are the four general steps performed by the Respiratory System?

A
  • Ventilation
  • External respiration
  • Transport of gases
  • Internal respiration

These steps encompass the process of breathing, gas exchange in the lungs, transport of gases through the bloodstream, and gas exchange at the cellular level.

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3
Q

Gases diffuse which direction along their Partial Pressure Gradient?

A

High-to-Low

This principle governs the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide during respiration.

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4
Q

Why are tissue cells always low in O2 and high in CO2?

A

Due to Cellular Respiration

Tissue cells consume oxygen for metabolic processes, producing carbon dioxide as a waste product.

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5
Q

What is the Conducting Zone?

A

The part of the respiratory system that includes structures for air passage but not gas exchange

It includes the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles.

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6
Q

What is the Respiratory Zone?

A

The area of the respiratory system where gas exchange occurs

It includes the alveoli and respiratory bronchioles.

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7
Q

Name the structures that air passes through as it goes from Nasal Cavity to Alveoli.

A
  • Nasal Cavity
  • Pharynx
  • Larynx
  • Trachea
  • Bronchi
  • Bronchioles
  • Alveoli

This pathway outlines the route of air during inhalation.

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8
Q

What is the Bronchial Tree?

A

A branching system of air passages in the lungs formed by the division of bronchi

It progressively divides into smaller bronchi and bronchioles.

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9
Q

What are Alveoli?

A

Tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs

They are crucial for transferring oxygen into the blood and removing carbon dioxide.

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10
Q

What cellular anatomy features help Alveoli do their job?

A
  • Thin walls
  • Large surface area
  • Moist lining

These features facilitate efficient gas exchange.

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11
Q

How are Alveoli arranged?

A

In clusters resembling a bunch of grapes

This arrangement increases the surface area available for gas exchange.

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12
Q

Why are Alveoli covered in Capillaries?

A

To allow for efficient gas exchange with the blood

The close proximity of capillaries to alveoli facilitates the transfer of gases.

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13
Q

What is Surfactant?

A

A substance that reduces surface tension in the alveoli

It is important for preventing alveolar collapse during exhalation.

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14
Q

Is there Mucus in Alveoli?

A

No

Alveoli are kept free of mucus to ensure efficient gas exchange.

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15
Q

What are the different Cell Types that make up the Alveoli?

A
  • Type I alveolar cells
  • Type II alveolar cells
  • Alveolar macrophages

Each type has specific functions in gas exchange and immune response.

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16
Q

What is the function of Type I alveolar cells?

A

To facilitate gas exchange

They are thin and cover most of the alveolar surface.

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17
Q

What is the function of Type II alveolar cells?

A

To produce surfactant

This helps reduce surface tension and maintain alveolar stability.

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18
Q

What is the function of Alveolar macrophages?

A

To remove debris and pathogens from the alveoli

They play a vital role in the immune defense of the respiratory system.

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19
Q

What is Boyle’s Law?

A

P1V1 = P2V2

Boyle’s Law describes the inverse relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas.

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20
Q

How does Boyle’s Law lead to Breathing?

A

Changes in lung volume cause changes in pressure, facilitating inhalation and exhalation

When the volume of the lungs increases, pressure decreases, allowing air to flow in.

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21
Q

What role do the Diaphragm and Intercostal Muscles play in Ventilation?

A

They contract to change the volume of the thoracic cavity

This contraction creates pressure differences that drive airflow during breathing.

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22
Q

What is the process of Inhalation?

A

Diaphragm contracts, thoracic cavity expands, air enters lungs

Inhalation increases lung volume and decreases internal pressure, allowing air to flow in.

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23
Q

What is the process of Exhalation?

A

Diaphragm relaxes, thoracic cavity decreases in volume, air is expelled

Exhalation decreases lung volume and increases internal pressure, pushing air out.

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24
Q

Which steps of the Respiratory System employ Fick’s Law?

A

Internal Respiration and External Respiration

These processes involve gas exchange of O2 and CO2 based on diffusion principles.

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25
What is Fick's Law of Diffusion?
Rate of diffusion is proportional to the surface area, pressure gradient, membrane permeability, and inversely proportional to membrane thickness ## Footnote Fick's Law quantifies how gases move across membranes.
26
What factors influence the Diffusion Rate according to Fick's Law?
* Surface Area * Pressure Gradient * Membrane Permeability * Membrane Thickness ## Footnote These factors determine how effectively gases diffuse.
27
How do Alveoli optimize Diffusion according to Fick's Law?
They provide a large surface area for gas exchange ## Footnote Alveoli increase the efficiency of oxygen and carbon dioxide diffusion.
28
How do Capillaries optimize Diffusion according to Fick's Law?
They are thin-walled and numerous, increasing surface area for gas exchange ## Footnote Capillaries enhance the diffusion of gases between blood and tissues.
29
What is the driving force for Gas Exchange?
Pressure Gradient ## Footnote The difference in partial pressures of gases drives their movement across membranes.
30
What is Dalton's Law?
In a mixture of gases, the total pressure is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of individual gases ## Footnote Dalton's Law helps in understanding gas concentrations in mixtures.
31
Why is it harder to breathe at higher altitudes?
There is a lower O2 Partial Pressure ## Footnote Although O2 concentration remains the same, the partial pressure decreases, affecting diffusion.
32
What is Henry's Law?
Gases will enter or exit a liquid based on the direction and strength of the pressure gradient ## Footnote Henry's Law describes the solubility of gases in liquids.
33
What additional factors influence the Diffusion/Exchange of gases?
* Partial Pressure * Solubility * Temperature ## Footnote These factors can affect how gases diffuse in biological systems.
34
Describe PO2 and PCO2 differences between outside air, Alveoli, Bloodstream, and Tissues.
PO2 is higher in outside air than in Alveoli and lowest in Tissues. PCO2 is lower in outside air than in Tissues and highest in Bloodstream ## Footnote These differences facilitate the exchange of gases during respiration.
35
What is Hemoglobin and why do we need it?
Hemoglobin is a protein that carries oxygen in the blood. We need it because oxygen has very low solubility in plasma.
36
How many subunits (i.e. protein 'Globins') makeup Hemoglobin?
Hemoglobin is made up of 4 subunits.
37
What is Heme and what important atom does it require?
Heme is a component of hemoglobin that binds oxygen. It requires iron (Fe).
38
How many molecules of oxygen does each Heme bind?
Each Heme binds 1 molecule of oxygen.
39
How many molecules of oxygen total does each Hemoglobin protein bind?
Each Hemoglobin protein binds 4 molecules of oxygen.
40
What color is oxygenated blood (i.e., oxyhemoglobin)?
Oxygenated blood is bright red.
41
What color is de-oxygenated blood (i.e., deoxyhemoglobin)?
De-oxygenated blood is dark red.
42
What is Cooperative Binding?
Cooperative Binding is a phenomenon where the binding of oxygen to one subunit of hemoglobin increases the likelihood of oxygen binding to the other subunits.
43
What shape is the curve of Hb-binding (% saturation) vs. Outside Pressure-02 curve?
The curve is S-shaped and not linear.
44
What is a Hemoglobin-Oxygen Dissociation Curve?
It is a graph that shows the relationship between the saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen and the partial pressure of oxygen.
45
Why is the S-shaped Hemoglobin-Oxygen Dissociation Curve helpful?
It allows Hb saturation to stay high across a range of external PO2 values.
46
What does the S-shaped curve allow Hemoglobin to do?
It allows Hemoglobin to hold onto oxygen until PO2 levels get low, such as in tissues or during exercise.
47
What factors influence the binding/unbinding of O2 from Hb?
* Temperature * pH * PCO2 * 2,3-DPG (BPG) ## Footnote All of these factors are affected by Exercise / Vigorous Activity.
48
What is the Bohr Effect?
Increased CO₂ or acidity (low pH) makes hemoglobin let go of oxygen more easily.
49
How does the solubility of Carbon Dioxide compare to Oxygen?
Carbon Dioxide is more soluble than Oxygen
50
How does Carbon Dioxide enter into the blood for transport back to the lungs?
* CO2 dissolves directly into plasma * CO2 directly binds to the non-heme parts of the Hb 'Globins' * CO2 is converted to Bicarbonate ions by Carbonic Anhydrase
51
How is CO2 converted to Bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)?
CO2 is converted to Bicarbonate ions by the enzyme Carbonic Anhydrase
52
Of the three methods employed to move CO2 through the blood, which is used the most?
The conversion of CO2 to Bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) is the most utilized method
53
When CO2 directly binds to Hemoglobin, does it bind to the Iron part?
No
54
Why must Cl- ions be brought into Erythrocytes?
Cl- ions are brought into Erythrocytes to maintain electrical neutrality during the exchange of bicarbonate ions
55
What three 'fluids' makeup our body?
Blood, Interstitial Fluid, Intracellular Fluid ## Footnote These fluids are essential for various physiological processes.
56
What is the main component of these fluids?
H2O ## Footnote Water is crucial for maintaining homeostasis.
57
What is Osmoregulation?
It monitors and controls water and solute levels in the body ## Footnote Osmoregulation is vital for maintaining fluid balance.
58
What is Osmolarity?
The concentration of solutes in a solution ## Footnote Osmolarity affects water movement across membranes.
59
What is Osmosis?
The movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration ## Footnote Osmosis is a key process in osmoregulation.
60
How can Osmolarity influence the direction water moves across membranes?
Higher osmolarity attracts water, while lower osmolarity repels it ## Footnote This principle is essential for cellular hydration.
61
What is Dialysis?
A process that removes waste and excess water from the blood ## Footnote Dialysis mimics kidney function in patients with kidney failure.
62
What can lead to NET Water Flow?
Anything that changes solute concentration ## Footnote This principle underlies many physiological processes.
63
What sources provide Humans with their daily Water Intake?
Drinking water, food, metabolic processes ## Footnote These sources ensure adequate hydration.
64
What processes account for daily Water Outtake from the Human Body?
Urination, perspiration, respiration, feces ## Footnote Understanding these processes is crucial for managing hydration.
65
What is a key part of the Thirst Mechanism?
Negative Feedback Loops ## Footnote These loops help maintain water balance.
66
Describe a SIMPLE overview of the Negative Feedback Loops employed by the Thirst Mechanism.
Hypothalamus detects dehydration, triggers ADH release from Posterior Pituitary, kidneys conserve water ## Footnote This mechanism is vital for regulating body water levels.
67
What are Nitrogenous Wastes?
Waste products produced from the metabolism of proteins ## Footnote These wastes must be excreted to avoid toxicity.
68
Why are Osmoregulation Systems closely tied to Urinary/Excretory Systems?
Harmful waste products need to be diluted in water to be urinated out ## Footnote This connection is crucial for removing toxins from the body.
69
What are the differences between Ammonia, Urea, Uric Acid in terms of Toxicity?
Ammonia is highly toxic, Urea is less toxic, Uric Acid is least toxic ## Footnote The level of toxicity affects how these wastes are managed by the body.
70
What are the differences between Ammonia, Urea, Uric Acid in terms of Energy to produce them?
Ammonia requires little energy, Urea requires moderate energy, Uric Acid requires more energy ## Footnote Energy expenditure varies based on the waste product.
71
What are the differences between Ammonia, Urea, Uric Acid in terms of Amount of water needed to dilute them?
Ammonia requires a lot of water, Urea requires less water, Uric Acid requires the least water ## Footnote The water requirement impacts hydration strategies.
72
What is the general, 'tubule-based' way of making Urine in the body?
Excretion of waste through filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion ## Footnote This process is essential for maintaining homeostasis.
73
What are the steps involved in making Filtrate that eventually becomes Urine?
Filtration, Reabsorption, Secretion, Excretion ## Footnote Each step plays a critical role in urine formation.
74
What is the Kidney?
An organ that filters blood to produce urine ## Footnote The kidney is essential for osmoregulation and waste removal.
75
What does the Kidney do?
Regulates water, electrolyte balance, and removes waste products ## Footnote Kidney function is vital for overall health.
76
What is the functional unit of the Kidney?
Nephron tubule ## Footnote Nephrons are responsible for urine production.
77
What are the physiological jobs that the Kidney performs?
Filtration of blood, regulation of blood pressure, electrolyte balance, acid-base balance ## Footnote These functions are crucial for homeostasis.
78
What are the other structures in the Urinary System, besides the Kidney?
Ureters, bladder, urethra ## Footnote These structures work together to excrete urine.
79
What is the difference between Blood and Urine, with regard to osmolarity?
Blood is less concentrated than urine
80
What is the difference between Blood and Urine, with regard to volume?
Urine volume is significantly lower than blood volume
81
What is the difference between Blood and Urine, with regard to pH?
Blood is typically more alkaline than urine
82
What is the difference between Blood and Urine, with regard to glucose/proteins?
Urine contains minimal glucose and proteins
83
What four processes are important to the formation of Urine?
* Filtration * Absorption * Secretion * Excretion
84
Describe the three layers of the Filtration Membrane in the Glomerular Capsule
* Fenestrated Capillaries * Basement Membrane * Visceral Layer (Podocytes)
85
What do Fenestrated Capillaries block and let through?
Block: blood cells and large proteins; Let through: water and small solutes
86
What does the Basement Membrane block and let through?
Block: large proteins; Let through: water and small molecules
87
What do the Visceral Layer (Podocytes) block and let through?
Block: large molecules; Let through: filtered plasma
88
Right after Filtration, what is different between Blood and Filtrate?
Filtrate lacks cells and proteins
89
What 'Pressures' influence Blood Plasma through the Filtration Membrane?
* Blood Pressure * Osmotic Pressure * Hydrostatic Pressure
90
What generates Blood Pressure?
Heart contractions
91
What generates Osmotic Pressure?
Concentration of solutes in plasma
92
What does the Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) Reabsorb?
A lot, including water, glucose, and ions
93
What does the Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) Secrete?
Various waste products and excess ions
94
Where is most of the water recovered from Filtrate?
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
95
Where is most of the glucose and proteins recovered from Filtrate?
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
96
Is Urea ever Reabsorbed?
Yes
97
What is the Loop of Henle?
A U-shaped portion of the nephron; not all nephrons have one
98
Which class of Nephron has a longer Loop of Henle?
Juxtamedullary Nephrons
99
What is the descending loop permeable to?
Water
100
What is the ascending loop permeable to?
Ions (salts)
101
What do the Juxtamedullary Nephrons establish in the Kidney?
High > Low Osmolarity Gradient as you move from the Medulla > Cortex
102
Describe the process of Countercurrent Multiplication in the Loop of Henle
Removes water from filtrate in the descending loop and salts in the ascending loop
103
Why is Countercurrent Multiplication important in the Loop of Henle?
It concentrates filtrate and maintains osmotic gradient
104
Why is Countercurrent Exchange between Loop of Henle and Vasa Recta important?
It removes extra ions/water to maintain the osmotic gradient
105
What functions does the Distal Convoluted Tubule serve?
* Absorption * Secretion
106
Why is it important that Filtrate is 'dilute' when entering the DCT?
Allows more H2O to be reabsorbed and secretion into filtrate
107
Is Absorption/Secretion in the DCT regulated by hormones?
Yes
108
What occurs in the Collecting Duct?
Final reabsorption of water and ions
109
How does ADH regulate water uptake in the Collecting Duct?
Increases permeability to water
110
What are Aquaporins?
Water channels that facilitate water reabsorption
111
How does the Juxtaglomerular Complex help control Blood Pressure?
Regulates renin, angiotensin, and aldosterone secretion

Anatomy P.2 (14 decks)

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