Unit 4 Lab Flashcards
(200 cards)
1
Q
Respiratory system
A
Surfaces that to obtain O2/eliminate CO2
-need to capture O2 from air to fuel cellular respiration in cells
-need to remove CO2 from cells that cellular respiration produces
- O2 and CO2 need to be /transported in large amounts
2
Q
4 steps to obtain O2/ eliminate CO2
A
- Pulmonary ventilation (breathing)
- External respiration (diffusion)
- Transport of respiratory gases
- Internal respiration (diffusion)
3
Q
- Pulmonary ventilation (breathing)
A
Muscle contraction of diaphragm moves air in (inspiration) and out (expiration)
4
Q
- External respiration (diffusion)
A
- O2 diffuses from lungs to blood
- CO2 diffuses from blood to lungs
5
Q
- Transport of respiratory gases
A
Cardiovascular system moves O2/CO2
6
Q
- Internal respiration (diffusion )
A
-O2 diffuses from blood to tissues
- CO2 diffuses from tissues to blood
7
Q
Upper respiratory system
A
Nose
Nasal cavity
Paranasal sinuses
Pharynx
8
Q
Lower respiratory system
A
Larynx
Trachea
Lungs: bronchitis/ bronchioles, alveoli
9
Q
Path of air/ oxygen into body
A
- air enters nostril, its filtered, warmed, humidified in nasal cavity
-air moves to pharynx, moves through larynx - air passes epiglottis/ esophagus and moves down trachea
- trachea branches into two main bronchi, one leading to each lung
- ## bronchi then branch repeatedly into finer tubes called bronchioles
10
Q
What do smallest bronchioles have?
A
Have air sacs clustered on their tips, called alveoli
11
Q
Alveoli
A
Where gas exchange occurs between the epithelial cells and dense capillaries
12
Q
What do alveoli lack?
A
Lack cilia and mucus for protection, instead have surfactant fluid
13
Q
Surfactant fluid (alveoli)
A
- protects alveoli
- reduces surface tension, this keeps sacs open
14
Q
Alveoli are the sites for….
A
Gas exchange
15
Q
How is O2/ CO2 passed across cell membrane?
A
Partial pressure (Pgas)
16
Q
Partial pressure (Pgas)
A
Pressure exerted by gas in a mixture
- measure that determines diffusion
- gas undergoes diffusion from a region of high partial pressure towards a region of low partial pressure
- allows for exchange of gases across cell membranes
17
Q
A
18
Q
High pressure (high O2)
Low pressure (low O2)
A
High pressure
- red blood cells constantly bringing more O2
Low pressure
- cells always depleting O2 via cellular respiration
19
Q
What passes through the nasal cavity?
A
Air passes through nasal cavity where important steps occur to prepare air for entry into system
20
Q
Choanae (internal nares)
A
Posterior nasal apertures, they are internal airways in nasal cavity
21
Q
Nasal conchae
A
Mucosa covered extensions that help create turbulent air flow to mix particles and humidify the air
22
Q
Olfactory mucosa
A
(In nasal vestibule )has many olfactory receptors for smell
23
Q
Respiratory mucosa
A
Has ciliated cells to move mucus to throat
- goblet cells mixed in, which secrete mucus
24
Q
Respiratory mucosa have …. And ….
A
Epithelial cells with Cilia cells and goblet cells
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What does respiratory mucosa line?
Lines most of tubes in the upper respiratory system
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Epithelial cells with cilia (respiratory mucosa)
Help move mucus along passageways
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Goblet cells (respiratory mucosa)
- help coat airway to reduce friction
- help trap pathogens/debris
29
What do respiratory sub mucosa do in respiratory mucosa?
Has seromucous glands that secrete mucus
- large mucus amount moistens air
- add anti microbial enzymes
30
Paranasal sinuses
Spaces in skull around nasal cavity where important
- frontal sinus, sphenoidal, maxillary, ethmoid
31
What do sinuses do
Lighten the skull so there is less strain on neck
- act as warm reserveiors which help humidify the air
- secrete mucus too
32
Pharynx connects …. And ….. to ….
Nasal cavity and mouth to larynx
33
Nasopharynx
Airway only
- soft palate and uvula block it when swallowing
- pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) help trap and destroy pathogens
34
Oropharynx
Merge with nasopharynx
- isthmus of faucets connects the mouth (oral cavity)
- surfaces change to be more protective against chemicals
35
More tonsils to destroy …
Pathogens
36
Laryngopharynx
Passage for air/ food
- where air/ food begin to diverge
37
Larynx serves three functions:
1) passageway for air into lower respiratory system
2. Switching point to route air and food to the appropriate locations
3. Voice production, cartilage cords are vibrated to generate sound
38
Larynx built out of ..
Cartilage network; are 8 hyaline cartilage structures
39
The 9th cartilage is
Epiglottis but it is made out of elastic cartilage
40
Larynx cartilages
Thyroid, cricoid, arytenoid, corniculate, and cuneiform
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Thyroid cartilage( larynx)
Protection / structure ( latency= openness) has some role in vocalization (Adam’s appl, bass)
42
Cricoid cartilage (larynx)
Structure (patency) and provides an attachment point for key muscles, ligaments, and cartilage
43
Arytenoid cartilage (larynx)
Essential to production of vocal sound
44
Corniculate cartilage (larynx)
Small nodules of hyaline cartilage, which help stretch arytenoid cartilages
45
Cuneiform cartilages (larynx)
Provide added lateral support to epiglottis and vocal folds
46
Larynx muscles
Posterior cricoarytenoid muscle
Thyroarytenoid (vocalis) muscle
47
Posterior cricoarytenoid muscle (larynx)
Abductor muscle that moves the arytenoid cartilages and associated vocal folds, as we., as the glottis to control vocalization
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Throarytenoid (vocalis) muscle (larynx)
Regulates movement of arytenoid cartilages and thyroid vocal folds, to control vocalization
49
Epiglottis covers … when food is swallowed
Trachea
50
Valsalva maneuver
Epiglottis can have sphincter functions that closes airway under additional conditions
- childbirth, defecation - creates additional pressure force to assist
51
Trachea
Windpipe that.brings air to lungs
- fairly short, from the larynx to mid chest
- reinforced by C-shaped rings(hyaline cartilage and 16-20 C shaped rings)
52
Trachea is both:
- rigid enough to stop collapse
- flexible enough for expansion
53
Trachealia muscle
Lies in open part of C- shaped cartilage, making this area of smooth muscle a less rigid location air
- provides flexibility for folded esophagus to expand when food passes
- provides contraction ability for coughing
54
What law does breathing use to move air
Boules Law (P1V1=P2V2)
55
What does the change of Boyles law changing volume cause of thoracic cavity
Cause inverse change in pressure of lungs
- volume change via muscle contraction
56
Inhalation
Thoracic cavity volume increase, the pressure decreases, and air moves from high-P —> Low- P into lungs
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Exhalation
Thoracic cavity volume decrease, the pressure increases, and air moves from High- P —-> Low-P out of lungs
58
What does trachea branch into?
Bronchial tree, abt 23 times to expand surface area
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Bronchial tree is the ___ zone
Conducting zone since it deals with moving air
60
As bronchial tree branches, will be a .. in airways from more …. To ,…
Will be a transition in airways from more trachea like to alveoli like
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What do bronchi mimic
Overall structure and anatomy of trachea
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Main bronchi further branch into
Smaller lobar (secondary) bronchi
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Lobar(secondary) bronchi then branch into
Territory segmental bronchi
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Smaller branches are considered
Bronchioles
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Smooth muscle present around …(bronchi)
Epithelium
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Respiratory epithelia has…
Goblet cells
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As you branch to smaller tubes, have less… (bronchi)
Less cartilage and less goblet cells
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How do bronchioles change after tubes get smaller
1. Structural
2. Epithelial
3. Smooth muscle
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1. Structural changes (bronchial)
Cartilage in patches and eventually when small enough, there is no cartilage
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2. Epithelial changes (bronchioles)
Mucosal epithelia (columnar , ciliates) changes into simple cuboidal (non ciliated)
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3. Smooth muscle change (bronchioles )
Relative amnt of smooth muscle increases
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Bronchioles : anatomy begins to substantially change..
1. No cartilage
2. No ciliated cells, no goblet cells (eventually), becomes a single cell layere of cuboidal cells
3. Smooth muscle: high relative amnt
4. Clara cells: secrete surfactant
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Alveoli at end of respiratory bronchioles are where…
Oxygen enters body via as exchange/diffusion
74
Alveolar sacs branch out at
Tips of the bronchial tree
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Alveolar scans are large bundles of
Indivual alveoli
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Terminal bronchioles
Small bronchioles that still do not yet have alveoli
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Respiratory bronchioles
Further branching of the terminal bronchioles which start to have alveoli and transition into alveolar ducts
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Alveolar sacs
Large bunches of alveoli that connect to alveolar ducts
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Alveoli
Indian units/sites of gas exchange
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Where does actual gas exchange occur
Respiratory zone
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3 major cells in alveoli
Type I alveolar cells , type II, macrophages
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Type I alveolar cells
Squamous epithelia cells that makeup the majority of alveoli walls
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Type II alveolar cells
Cuboidal epithelial cells which secrete surfactant to keep cells open
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Macrophages
Crawl freely along internal alveoli surfaces to consume bacteria/ debris
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What are the 3 major cells in alveoli surrounded by
Elastic fibers and pores connect adjacent alveoli
(Equalize pressure/redundancy)
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Alveoli are the sites for gas exchange which occurs via
Diffusion
- O2 rapidly diffuse across epithelium into capillaries and cardiovascular system
- CO2 rapidly diffuses from capillaries across epithelium and into alveoli
87
Hemoglobin binding shift summary
Efficiency of Hb saturation can vary due tomfollowing physiological changes
1. Temp, 2. PH, 3. PCO2 , 4. 2,3- diphoglycerate (2,3-DOG)
- exercise/ vigorous activity is substantial determining factor of these shifts
88
Lungs
Surrounded by pleurae and occupy thoracic cavity
89
Pleural cavity
Additional closed fluid filled cavity for boules law
- visceral pleurae line lungs
- parietal pleurae line thoracic cavity
90
Right and left lung have did
Shape and lobe form due to placement of heart
91
Storms
Elastic connective tissue makes up non respiratory cells
92
Fissures separate..
Lobes to help compartmentalize organ
93
Lobular compartmentalization helps to..
Isolate zones damaged during trauma or disease
94
Right lung= _ lobes
3 lobes
- R superior, R middle, R inferior
95
Left lung= _ lobes
2 lobes
- Lsuperior, L inferior
96
Lobular compartmentalization broken into
Branches , bronchopulmonary segments
97
Each lobe gets further divided into brinchopulmonary segments…
- help contain damage/disease
- right lung= 10 segments
- left lung= 8-10 segments
98
Smallest visible unit is called the.. (bronchopulmonary)
Lobule, each served by a large bronchioles and its branches
- each served by one terminal bronchioles and it branches into respiratory bronchioles/ alveolar sacs
99
Segments are further divided into … which typically contain …
Divided into lobules, which typically contain terminal bronchioles/ alveolar sacs
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101
Hilum
Airways, circulatory vessels, nerves enter lungs
- indentation through which pulmonary vessels, bronchitis, lymphatic vessels, and nerves both enter and leave the lungs
102
Boules law changes in volume
Pressure of gas varies inversely w volume
- in closed area if you increase volume, pressure decreases
- decrease volume, pressure increases
- bulk flow of air will go from region of high pressure to low pressure
103
Breathing is the process that can occurs because
Air moves from high to low pressure
104
Breathing
Process of ventilation in lungs, w the alternation of inhalation and exhalation
105
Thoracic cavity expanded by contraction of … and ..
Rib muscles and diaphragm
106
Negative pressure breathing
Expansion pulls air into lungs
107
Intrapulmonary pressure
Intro alveolar pressure= pressure in alveoli (Ppul)
108
Ppul lower than atmospheric pressure (Patm) then have a .. ( intrapulmonary pressure)
Negative respiratory pressure and air will move into lungs
- equilibrates such that Patm=Ppul once air is done moving after breathing in
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Ppul higher than atmospheric pressure (Patm) then have a … (Intrapulmonary pressure)
Positive respiratory pressure and then air moves out of lungs
- equilibrates such that Patm=Ppul once air is done moving after breathing out
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Why do lungs stay inflated even when we are not active,y breathing or exhaling
Because intramural pressure (Pip) inside pleural cavity is always negative, meaning is always a slight attempted push of air from inside lungs, from residual volume, outward against lung walls
113
Lungs __ collapse even when Patm=Ppul equitable
Don’t
114
Residual volume of air inside the lungs is trying to move from
High P to low P area, from lungs to pleural cavity but can’t because there is a barrier. This attempted push will inflate the lungs even when not breathing
115
Intrapleural pressure= Pip = pressure in pleural cavity : always negative due to:
- lung recoil/elasticity pulling away from thorax wall (slight V ^, so Pip)
-alveoli attempting to close due to surface tension (slight V^, so Pip ⬇️)
- results in pleural cavity always trying to slightly expand as air in lungs attempts to move into lower P zone
116
Trans pulmonary pressure (PiP-Ppul) always should come out to be less than the Ppul Intrapulmonary pressure inside lungs to :
- keeps lungs sucked/ pulled up against the thorax wall, stay expanded
- resist lungs recoiling power and alveolar collapse, prevent collapse
117
Translunar pressure will vary between
4-6mmHg as determined by contraction of diaphragm and intercostal muscles
- variance is ultimately what makes lungs grow/ shrink volume when breathing
118
What happens if pleural cavity is damaged
Lung will collapse
119
How exactly does pressures in these cavities change during breathing
Still by changing the volume of both these cavities (boules law)
120
Inhalation muscle contraction expands…
Thorax
- increase in volume influences both pleura and lungs
121
Exhalation muscle contraction shrinks..
Thorax
- decrease in volume influences both pleura and lungs
122
1. Muscles contract/shorten (ventilation, volumes, pressure) V⬆️, P⬇️
- thorax increases volume
- pleural cavity increases volume
- intrapleural pressure lowers
- intramural pressure is still at least -4mm less than pressure in airways (
- keeps intrapleural cavity from collapsing
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2. Adhesive forces between pleura (ventilation, volumes, pressures) V⬆️, P ⬇️
- force pulls visceral pleura out along with expanding thorax wall/parietal pleura
- expands pulmonary volume
125
3. Intrapulmonary pressure is now lower (ventilation, volume, pressure)
Lower relative to outside atmosphere
- air then moves high > low pressure into lungs
126
4. Muscles relax/lengthen (ventilation, volumes, pressure)
- thorax decreases volume influences both
- pleural cavity increases, decreases volume
- intramural pressure increases
- P1 pushes on pulmonary volume
- pulmonary volume decreases
127
5. Intrapulmonary pressure increases (ventilation, volumes, pressure)
Increases , Intrapulmonary pressure is now higher relative to outside atmosphere
- air moves high > low pressure out of lungs
128
Muscle contractions differ during conditions of forced
Inspiration/ exhalation
129
Forced inspiration employs : (muscle contractions)
Pectoralis minor, sternocleidomastoid, erector spinal muscles
- lifts up rib cage quickly and expands it out further
- drops the presssure even more causing more air to enter
130
Forced expiration employs: (muscle contraction)
Abdominal muscles and internal intercostal muscles
- contract thoracic cavity inward, lowering volume
- increases pressure inside lungs more, forcing more air out
131
Spirometer/ Spirograph assay
Lung volumes
132
Resting tidal volume
Volume of air inhaled with each normal breath (diaphragm+ intercostals)
133
Inspiration reserve volume ( IRV)
Volume of air can be forcibly inhaled ( sternocleidomastoid)
134
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
Volume of air that can be forcibly exhaled (abdominals)
135
Vital capacity
Total air that can be moved
136
Residual volume
Air that always stays in lungs
137
Minute ventilation = tidal volume x breaths/minute
Taken during resting conditions
- like to heart rate , but for breathing volumes (output)
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Forced vital capacity = maximum amount of air can be moved
Highest potential volume in and out of lungs
- asthma. And COPD can cause this to be different
- blockages or inflammatory constrictions of conduction zone
- there are additional things that reduce vital capacity
139
Dead space, air inhaled respiratory system that cannot be removed
1. Anatomical dead space
2. Alveolar dead space
140
Anatomical dead space
On top of residual volume, added reductions in movement of air through the
- bronchi and larger bronchioles
- avg person has 150mL due to mucus, inflammation
141
2. Alveolar dead space
Alveoli that are collapsed or obstructed
- typically result from pathologies
142
Alveolar ventilation rate (AVR)
True minute ventilation that takes dead space into account when assaying lung health
143
What volume of air air is importsnt in Heimlich manuever
Expiratory reserve volume, what’s left in lungs to push food out
144
What physical principle is demonstrated when performing the Heimlich maneuver
Reduce volume in lungs, increase the pressure (boules law) shove food outwards
145
Exchange in human body usually involve … that are dissolved in media including
Solutes
- including:
Blood plasma
Interstitial (body) fluid
Intracellular (cytoplasm) fluid
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The exchange of …,…,… is going to affect both the …
Exchange of ions, nutrients, wastes, is going to affect both the direction/ rate of diffusion
147
Anything that changes the solute concentration in any compartment leads to
Net water flow
148
Osmoregulation
Regulation of water levels and solute balance
- control of how body manages water balance and solute concentrations, to maintain/respond to physiological needs
149
Changes in solute concentrations can lead to changes in
Water flow
150
Since excretion of ursine deals with moving water mixed with wastes, the systems that conduct …. Are integrated with …
Conduct osmoregulation are integrated with urinary systems
151
Water balance is regulated by
Thirst mechanism
152
Methods for regulating water loss can vary greatly depending on animals …. And …
Evolved lifestyle and environment
153
Urine and feces are you a major source of
Water loss as well
154
Osmosregulation and excretion are
Closely integrated
- including via urinary system
155
Waste products produced by an animal reflect its
Energy needs and behavioral adaptions
156
Nitrogenous wastes reflect … and …
Energy needs and habitat
157
Type and quantity of an animals waste products greatly affect its
Water balance
158
Important breakdown products are … from catabolized proteins and nuclei acids
Nitrogenous wastes
- some convert toxic ammonia (NH3) to less toxic compounds prior to excretion
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160
Humans use urea
- dispose of urea in urine
- some urea is used while making osmatic gradient in kidneys
161
Most excretory systems make urine (waste fluid) with specialized …
Tubules
162
Excretion system steps
1: filtration
2. Reabsorprion
3. Secretion
4. Excretion
163
1. Filtration (excretion)
Pressure forces water/solutes from blood/hemolymph into tubule
164
2. Reabsorption (excretion)
Valuable solutes from the filtrate are reclaimed into body
165
3. Secretion(excretion)
Depositing toxins and solutes from body fluids to filtrate
166
4. Excretion(excretion)
Removal of filtrate from the system (now considered urine)
167
Tubules in Kidneys share …, which are closely associated with ..
Are nephrons, which are closely associated with capillaries
168
Nephrons are therefore the functional unit of the
Kidney
169
Kidneys regulate processes that induce changes in solute concentrations, which thus allows
-regulation of extra cellular fluid volume
- reg. Of blood pressure
- reg. Of blood pH
- reg. Of osmolarity
- excretion of wastes
- prod. Of chemicals in cycle of erythrocytes
- vit D3 metabolism
- help carry out gluconeogenesis during fasting
170
Kidneys receive massive amount of … to filter and turn into urine
Blood
171
Ureters
Tube’s transport urine from kidneys to urinary bladder
172
Urinary bladder
Temporary storage reservoir for urine
173
Urethra
Tube that carries urine from bladder to body exterior
174
Retroperitoneal position
Kidneys are between dorsal body wall and peritoneum (lining of internal organ cavity)
- extend from T12 to L3, receive some protection from lower part of rib cage
175
Three supportive layers of kidneys
- renal fascia (anchor/support)
- perirenal fat capsule (cushion)
- fibrous capsule (stop infection)
176
Renal hill,
Cleft in kidney began shape where the ureter, lymphatics, blood vessels and nerves connect to kidney
177
Renal artery
Branches from aorta to bring blood supply to kidney
178
Right renal artery
Longer because the aorta lies left to midline
179
Renal vein
Vessels leaving kidney tissue connect to inferior vena cava
180
Left renal vein
Longer because the vena cava is right of midline
181
Corte x (kidney)
Light colored outer region
- contains bulk of the nephron tubules
182
Medulla (kidney)
Reddish brown, interior region
- contains longer nephrons
- arranged in upside down renal pyramid
- tips of pyramids made of renal papilla
183
Pelvis(kidney)
Interior funnel shaped tube region
- renal papilla empty urine here
- empty into minor calyces
- minor calyces merge to major calyces
- major calyces merge into pelvis
184
Kidney receives …. Each minute
1.2L
185
Although only a fraction of weight of human body, approximately 1/4 of cardiac output goes to
Kidney
186
Path of blood to and from the nephrons is straightforward but with a decent amount of steps
Aorta, renal artery, segmental artery, interlobar artery, arcuate artery, cortical radiate artery, afferent arteriole, glomerulus (capillaries), efferent arteriole, peritubular capillaries or vasa recta, cortical radiate vein, arcuate vein, interlobar vein, renal vein, inferior vena cava
187
Glomeruli are … where filtration occurs
Capillaries
,for, in arteriole rather than being the intersection of arteriole and venule
- keeps pressure up
188
Peritubular capillaries/ vasa recta accociate with..
Nephrons to conduct reabsorption/secretion
189
190
Blood follows similar path out except are no
Official segmental veins
191
Kidney is a collection of … and …
Tubules and blood vessels
192
Nephrons
Functional unit of human kidney
193
What is nephrons made of
Single long tubule, which starts surrounding ball of capillaries called glomerules
194
Bowman’s capsule (nephron)
Collection area surrounding glomerulus which receives filtrate
195
Capillaries branch around regions of nephron to conduct exchanges between
Filtrate and blood
196
Blood vessels and nephrons are in … exchange in area of ..
Countercurrent exchange in area of vasa recta, that sets up fluids moving in opposite directions
197
Countercurrent exchange optimizes exchanges and helps setup the
Solute gradient in kidney
198
2 classes of nephrons
Cortical nephrons
Juxtamesullary nephrons
199
Cortical nephrons
85% of nephrons in kidneys
- only small parts of their nephron loops enter outer medulla, they are located entirely in cortex and use peritubular capillaries
200
Juxtamedullary nephrons
Originate at cortex medulla junction
- play important role in ability to produce urine that is concentrated
- have long nephron loops that deeply invite the medulla and associate with vasa recta
