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Human Phyisology Cuesta College Bio 205 > Unit 6 Lecture > Flashcards

Unit 6 Lecture Flashcards

1
Q

Define mitosis

A

For growth and repair, turning a diploid cell into two identical diploid cells

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2
Q

How many pairs of chromosomes do we have

A

23

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3
Q

Define meiosis

A

Production of gametes, one diploid cell produces 4 diploid s at a time

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4
Q

Where does meiosis occur?

A

Happen in the ovaries or testes

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5
Q

Define dimorphic

A

Meaning two sexes

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6
Q

What do male and female gonads produce?

A

Male gonads = testes = sperm
Female gonads = ovaries = eggs

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7
Q

What causes the production of gametes?

A

Hormones

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8
Q

Where does sex cell production occur?

A

In útero

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9
Q

How many chromosomes do diploid cell have?

A

46 chromosomes

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10
Q

How many chromosomes did haploid cells have?

A

23 chromosomes

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11
Q

What are oogonia

A

Germ cells for females

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12
Q

What are spermatogonia

A

Germ cells for males

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13
Q

Get unit two notes for mitosis

A
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14
Q

What is happening during prophase 1?

A

The chromosomes from mom and dad get close and perform a cross over to increase genetic diversity

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15
Q

What is primary gamete

A

Duplicated Diploid cells with 46 chromosomes

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16
Q

What is secondary gamete

A

Haploid cells with 23 chromosomes and need of one more round of duplication

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17
Q

What is final stage gamete?

A

A Haploid cell with 23 chromosomes that have a single copy of each chromosome(chromatids

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18
Q

How many sperm are produced from a spermatocyte

A

1 spermatocyte = 4 sperm

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19
Q

What is the timing for males gametogenesis

A

Before birth immature lots of speratogonia are produced through mitosis . At birth production of sperm is quiescent

At puberty spermatogenesis begins again

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20
Q

What is the timing for gametogeneis for females?

A

Before birth they complete mitotic divisions to create all primary procures (~ 500,000 at birth)

Primary procures go quiescent after duplicating chromosomes

At puberty 1 primary procure is chosen for maturation and go through meiosis 1.

Produces a secondary oocyte and first polar body

At 2 nd neurotic division begins where the secondary oocyte stops at the fallopian tube and wait for sperm.

Ovulation occurs

If fertilization occurs one set of chromatids combine with a sperm genome and other is casta away as the 2nd polar bodyv

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21
Q

Define monozygotic twins

A

Aka identical twins have identical DNA , fertilized by one egg.
Where the zygote splits into two

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22
Q

Define dizygotic twins

A

Like leia and Luke Aka fraternal twins have different DNA , two separate eggs produced during one ovarian cycle and ultimately fertilized by genetically different sperm

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23
Q

Define nondisjunction

A

When a gamete end with more or less than 23 chromosomes

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24
Q

What is klinefelters syndrome

A

Chromosomes in male are XXY causing problems with small testicles, ⬇️ fertility

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25
Q

Define Turner’s syndrome

A

Chromosome is only X, infertile & short in stature

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26
Q

What hormones are released by hypothalamus

A

Gonadotropin releasing hormone

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27
Q

What hormones are released by anterior pituitary gland

A

Lutenizing hormone (LH)
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

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28
Q

What does litenizing hormone do?

A
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29
Q

What do follicle stimulating hormone do?

A
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30
Q

Examples of steroid hormones

A

Testerone, estrogens or progesterone that regulate gamete production

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31
Q

Why is cholesterol good?

A

It helps with production of progesterone, estrogen, testerone

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32
Q

What can testerone be converted into?

A

Dihydrotesterone

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33
Q

Aroma taste inhibitors

A

Are meant to inhibit cholesterol which do something for hormone production and fight breast cancer

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34
Q

What are the 3 estrogens?

A

Estradiol, estriol, esterone

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35
Q

What does estriol do?

A

Main estrogen that are post puberty but not pregnant

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36
Q

What does estradiol do?

A

Main estrogen during pregnancy

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37
Q

What function is esterone

A

Main estrogen after menopause

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38
Q

Tell me the male spermatogensis control

A

Hypothalamus sends a pulse(every 90 minutes) for GnRH to the anterior pituitary gland .
The anterior pituitary gland release FSH to stimulate Sertoli cells.
Stimulate Sertoli cells stimulate spermatogenesis
Sertoli cells produce androgen binding protein. Which help carry testerone in the blood.

The anterior pituitary gland release LH to stimulate interstitial cells. Interstitial cells produce testerone that bind to androgen binding cells

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39
Q

What are Sertoli cells?

A

Cells that make up the walls of the semiferous tubules

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40
Q

How many sperm do males make a day?

A

100-300 million sperm per day after puberty

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41
Q

What is in the head of a spermatozoa made of? Called?

A

Composed of acrosome and nucleus

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42
Q

What is the head of a mid piece of a sperm

A

Centrioles and mitochondria

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43
Q

Define gametogenesis

A

The production of sex cells in both males and females

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44
Q

Define spermatogenesis

A

Production of sperm cells

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45
Q

Define oogenesis

A

Production of egg cells

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46
Q

A cell that has two copies of every chromosomes is called?

A

A diploid

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47
Q

A cell that has only one copy of every chromosome is called?

A

A haploid

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48
Q

What is a type of cell division that used for growth and repair in tissues?

A

Mitosis

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49
Q

What is the description of a diploid cell duplicates all its chromosomes and organelles before dividing into two identical daughter cells?

A

Mitosis

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50
Q

What is a type of cell division that only happens in the ovaries or testes?

A

Meiosis

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51
Q

What type of cell division starts as a diploid cell and produces 1-4 haploid cells after two rounds of division

A

Meiosis

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52
Q

How many pairs of chromosomes do diploid cells have?

A

23

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53
Q

What is the first step of meiosis that includes the germ cell to go through interphase to duplicate all organelles and chromosomes.

A

Primary gamete

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54
Q

Define crossing over

A

Process to exchange genes between homologous chromosomes. Occurs during prophase 1

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55
Q

During anaphase 1 homologous chromosomes do what so that each pair get pulled to an opposite side of the dividing cell

A

Separate .

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56
Q

At the end of meiosis 1 there are two haploid cells that both have a duplicate copy attached. What are these gametes called?

A

Secondary gametes

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57
Q

During anaphase 2 each sister chromatid will do what? That causes the centromere holding the two identical chromatids together to break

A

Split

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58
Q

What is the final stage gamete?

A

Process of meiosis start with one spermatogonium and ÷ into 4 gametes which will mature into sperm

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59
Q

What are polar bodies?

A

For females the procress of meiosis start with one oogonium and ÷ into only one mature egg. Other three cells containing genetic material will become a polar body and ultimately disintegrate

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60
Q

What is gonadotropin releasing hormone?

A

It’s released from the hypothalamus in males every 1.5 hours. This hormone triggers the release of two anterior pituitary hormones

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61
Q

What is follicle stimulating hormone?

A

Hormones from anterior pituitary gland that stimulates servility cells in the testes to produce androgen binding protein, inhibit and paracrine signals needed for spermatogenesis

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62
Q

Where is the gonatroponin releasing hormone released?

A

Hypothalamus

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63
Q

What is luteinizing hormone

A

Anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates interstitial cells of leading to produce testerone.

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64
Q

Why is testerone important?

A

Critical hormone that supports male secondary sex characteristics and aids in sperm production

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65
Q

Tell me about the follicular phase

A

Part of the menstrual cycle that actually composed of two espérate cycles of events that happen in the ovaries and uterus. The first half of the ovarian sucker 1-14 days is the follicular cycle

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66
Q

During anaphase what hormone is produced by the anterior pituitary gland that stimulates the development of new follicle in the ovaries

A

Follicle stimulating hormone

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67
Q

As a follicle develops between 5-13 what hormone is secreted higher and higher

A

Estrogen

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68
Q

Just before ovulation in females there’s in ⬆️ of what hormone that’s released from the anterior pituitary gland

A

Luteinizing hormone

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69
Q

After ovulation , in the second half of the ovarian cycle during days 15-28 is called the what phase

A

Literal phase

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70
Q

During the luteal phase what hormone is the dominant ovarian hormone?

A

Progesterone

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71
Q

What hormone is produced by the corpus luteum which is what remains of the follicle in the ovary

A

Progesterone

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72
Q

The uterine cycle has three sub phases. This is the cycle is the first of those subphases and is triggered by low levels of estrogen and progesterone. This does not indicate implantation occurred in the previous menstrual cycle.

A

Menses

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73
Q

What uterine cycle removes old uterine lining during a period of bleeding?

A

Menses

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74
Q

What is the second uterine phase

A

Proliferative phase

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75
Q

What section of the uterine sub phase is stimulated by raising estrogen levels from the ovaries. It causes the thickening of the uterine lining

A

Proliferative phase

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76
Q

What is the third phase of the of the uterine subphase

A

Secretory phase

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77
Q

What subphase of the uterine cycle is stimulated by high levels of progesterone from the ovaries? It causes an extra thickening of the uterine lining from the Proliferative phase .

A

Secretory phase

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78
Q

What subphase adds additional thickening of the uterine lining in anticipation of pregnancy along with ⬆️ vascularuzation and deopositing of fuel molecules like glycogen and lipids for a potential embryo

A

Secretory phase

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79
Q

What is the structure that is an accessory digestive organ? It releases liquid containing digestive enzymes (carbs and lipids) into the mouth during chewing

A

Salivary glands

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80
Q

What is the muscular tube that transport food from the mouth to the stomach

A

Esophagus

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81
Q

What organ is where swallowed food and drinks is further combined with digestive enzymes and hydrochloride acid?

A

Stomach

82
Q

What organ is the compartment where protein digestion happens

A

Stomach

83
Q

What is the accessory digestive organ that located inferior and posterior to the stomach?

A

Pancreas

84
Q

What is the accessory digestive organ that has endocrine and exocrine function? These help with digestion in the small intestine

A

Pancreas

85
Q

What organ is highly coiled section of the digestive tract where vast majority of biomolecule digestion and absorption occurs

A

Small instestine

86
Q

What is the final compartment of the digestive tract that absorbs the last remnants of water from the digested food and condenses it into feces?

A

Large intestine

87
Q

What organ is the destination that triggers defecation reflex

A

Rectum

88
Q

What organ filters and detoxifies the blood ?

A

Liver

89
Q

What organ is and important storage site of glycogen, iron and many vitamins?

A

Liver

90
Q

What organs structures as qualifies as accessory digestive organ since it synthesizes bile?

A

Liver

91
Q

What is bile?

A

A substance created in the liver that aids in emulsification and digestion of lipids

92
Q

What organ stores bile and is influcned by hormones? Which influenced releases bile into the small intestine

A

Gall bladder

93
Q

Define digestion

A

Chemical and mechanical breakdown of foods into smaller units . These unit are small enough to go to intenstial epithelium in the body

94
Q

Define absorption

A

Active or passive transfer of substances from the lumen of the GI tract to the extracellular fluid

95
Q

Define motility

A

Movement of material in the GI tract as a result of muscle contraction

96
Q

Define secretion in regards of the digestive study

A

Transepithelial transfer of water and ions from extracellular fluid to the digestive tract lumen as wall as release of substance synthesized by GI epithelial cells

97
Q

What nervous system helps coordinate digestive function

A

Enteric nervous system

98
Q

Define peristalsis

A

Progressive contracted wave like movement by muscle from one section of the GI tract to the next

99
Q

Since fat is not absorbed directly into circulation like monosaccharides and amino acids. These lymph vessels are the route by which fats enter the circulation

A

Lacteals

100
Q

What are endopeptidases

A

They attack long peptide bonds into smaller fragments

101
Q

Define exopeltidases

A

They release single amino acids from peptides es by chopping off the ends one at a time

102
Q

What levels do carbs digestive in order to be absorbed in the blood

A

Monosaccharides

103
Q

What level should proteins digested down into what level in order to be absorbed into the blood

A

Monomer, amino acids

104
Q

Ingested triglycerides will digested down to what level in order to be absorbed?

A

Fatty acids, momoner

105
Q

Monosaccharide examples

A

Glucose, fructose, galactose

106
Q

What hormone targets the gastric and intestinal smooth muscle?

A

Motilin

107
Q

What hormone is stimulated by fasting and stimulates the migrating motor complex?

A

Motilin

108
Q

What hormone targets the endocrine pancreas and is stimulated by mixed meals that include carbs, fats that enter the small intestine

A

Glucagon like peptide 1

109
Q

What hormone stimulates insulin release and inhibits glucagon release?

A

Glucagon like peptide 1

110
Q

What hormone targets the ECL cells and parietal cells of the stomach? It’s stimulated by peptides and amino acids in the stomach or neural reflexes

A

Gastrin

111
Q

What hormone stimulates gastric acid secretion and mucosal growth

A

Gastrin

112
Q

What hormones is stimulated by fatty acids when they enter the small intestine? It targets the gall bladder, pancreas and stomach?

A

Cholecytokinin

113
Q

What hormones stimulate gall bladder contraction and pancreatic enzyme secretion?

A

Cholecystokinin

114
Q

What hormone inhibits gastric emptying and acid secretion

A

Cholecystokinin

115
Q

What signal molecule is stimulated by acid entering the small intestine and targets the pancreas and stomach?

A

Secretin

116
Q

What signal molecule stimulates bicarbonate release and inhibits gastric emptying and acid secretion

A

Secretin

117
Q

What hormone targets beta cells of the pancreas that cause insulin g release?

A

Gastric inhibitory peptide

118
Q

What hormone inhibits gastric emptying and acid secretion

A

Gastric inhibitory peptide & cholecytokinin

119
Q

Define ingestion

A

Putting food in the mouth

120
Q

Define mastication

A

Chewing and food mixed with salivia

121
Q

Define deglutition

A

Swallow

122
Q

Peristalsis

A

Squeezing by muscular contraction along and through the GI tract

123
Q

Define segmental contractions

A

Responsible for mixing, aletnarting segment contract to causing mixing

124
Q

What type of bond holds a polymer for fatty acid

A

Ester bonds

125
Q

What type of bond is used for carbs

A

Glycosidic bond. Think carbs to glycogen to glycosidic bond

126
Q

What type of bond is used for proteins

A

Peptide bond . Think P for protein and peptide bond

127
Q

Examples of experiments secretions in the GI tract

A

Enzyme
Hydrochloride acid
Bicarbonate
Mucus

HEBM

128
Q

What type of motility occurs at the mouth?

A

Mastication , regulation , ingestion

129
Q

What secretions occur in the mouth?

A

Salivia , salivary amylase and salivary lipase

130
Q

What is being digested in the mouth?

A

Fats (minimally) & carb

131
Q

What absorption occur at the mouth?

A

Sublingual of different drugs

132
Q

Are enzymes secreted in the esophagus?

A

Nope

133
Q

What type of motility occurs in the stomach?

A

Segmental contractions

134
Q

What secretions create chyme?

A

Hydrochloride acid
Zymogen
Gastric lipase
Mucus

HZGM

135
Q

What secretions occurs in the stomach?

A

Gastric juices . Juices used to make chyme

136
Q

What is digested in the stomach

A

Proteins and < 10% of fat

137
Q

What is being absorbed in the stomach?

A

Aspirin and alcohol

138
Q

What kinds of bonds is ester, peptide and glucocorticoids bonds?

A

Covalent bonds

139
Q

What are chief cells? What do they secrete? The function? What their stimulus?

A

Secrete : pepsin , gastric lipase
Function : digest protein(pepsin), digest fats(gastric lipase)
Stimulus : ACH & acid secretion

140
Q

What are D cells? What do they secrete? The function? What their stimulus?

A

Secrete : somatostatin
Function : inhibit gastric acid secretion
Stimulus : acid in the stomach

141
Q

What are G cells? What do they secrete? The function? What their stimulus?

A

Secrete : gastric
Function : ⬆️ gastric acid secretion
Stimulus : ACH , peptides & amino acids

142
Q

Define zymogens

A

Inactive form of secreted enzymes

143
Q

Story of stomach secretion regulation

A
144
Q

Which cells secrete HCL

A
145
Q

What motility occurs in the small intestine?

A

Peristalsis & segmentation

146
Q

What type secretions occur in the small intestine

A

Bile, pancreatic juice

147
Q

What is digested in small intestine?

A

Protein, carbs and fats

148
Q

What is absorbed in the small intestine

A

Monosaccharides
Amino acids
Fatty acids
Water
Electrolytes

149
Q

What enzymes comes from pancreas to small intestine?

A

Bicarbonate , mucus and isotonic saline , bile and pancreatic enzymes

150
Q

What activates trypsinogen to become trypsin

A

Enteripeptidase

151
Q

What enzymes does trypsin activate?

A

Chymotroypsin, carboxypeptidase
Phospholipase

CCP

152
Q

Bicarbonate mechanism

A

It’s like the parietal cell but flipped 180°

153
Q

What enzyme is needed to make bicarbonate

A

Carbonic anhydrase

154
Q

Story of carb digestion

A

Pancreatic amylase digested starch and glycogen to become disaccharides

155
Q

What glucose polymers make up maltose, sucrose and lactose?

A

Maltose: 2 glucose
Sucrose : 1 glucose + 1 fructose
Lactose : 1 glucose + 1 galactose

156
Q

How do we get monosaccharides absorbed in the blood

A
157
Q

What is endopeptidase?

A

It clips amino acids chains in half to form 2 small fragments

It has pepsin in the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin in the small intestine

158
Q

What does enzyme tell you when it ends with sin?

A
159
Q

What does an enzyme tell you when it ends with ase?

A
160
Q

What is exopetidases.

A

They will break the amino acid chain at the distal ends . Carboxylpeptidase and aminopeptidase are under the exopetidase umbrella

161
Q

What does aminopeptidase do?

A

They break up amine group

162
Q

What does carboxypeptidase do

A

It breaks up carboxyl groups in a amino acid chain

163
Q

How do single amino acids move out of the lumen?

A

By the use of co-transport with Na+ (symport)

164
Q

How are do peptides & tripeptides pass through the lumen

A

On the apical membrane. They need the help of memenrane transporters , SAT with H+

165
Q

How do oligo- peptides move across of the lumen wall?

A

The use from the apical to the basolateral by transcytosis

166
Q

What can amino acids and fatty acids in the digestion system?

A

They can release H+ ions into the solution

167
Q

What do amino acids , di & tri pepetides enter to go to the liver?

A

Hepatic portal vein

168
Q

How is fat digested & absorbed

A

It begins in the mouth & stomach. But primarily in the small intestine. While fat is in the small intestine bile arrives from the liver and emulsify the fat into micelles then cholesterol and free fatty acids.

Free fatty acids and monoglycerides simply diffuses through the apical membrane into the cell of small intestine .

Freer fatty acid go through smooth ER turn into triglyceride

Cholesterol goes through a carrier protein (NPCk1L1 transporter)

Cholera too combines with triglyceride and protein fragments equal chlyomicron

Chlyomicron use exocytosis to exit the basolateral membrane

Chlyomicron out of the small intestine cell to the lymph to vena cava

169
Q

How do bile fat in fat digestion

A

A amphipathtic molecule emulsify fat into small droplets . It increases surface area so that other enzymes can break down the fat

170
Q

What is a triglyceride composed of?

A

Monoglyceride + 2 free fatty acids

171
Q

Where does primary fat digestion and absorption occur? Where else does it occur?

A

Primarily small intestine. Other location at stomach and mouth

172
Q

What is Zeita?

A

A drug the decreases cholesterol carrier protein to treat patient with high cholesterol at high risk for heart disease.

173
Q

What category of drugs blocks cholesterol carrier protein blockage to the liver

A

Statins

174
Q

What type of motility occurs at the large intestine?

A

Peristalsis and segmentation

175
Q

What secretions occur in the large intestine?

A

Mucus from goblet cells

176
Q

What is digested in the large intestine?

A

None except by symbiotic microorganisms. Only proteins and polysaccharides and synthesize important vitamins

177
Q

What is being absorbed in the large intestine?

A

Water, electrolytes and vitamins (B & K

178
Q

What storage and elimination occur at the large intestine?

A

Temporary storage and defecation occur

179
Q

How much energy is expended during basal metabolic rate?

A

60%

180
Q

How many calories should males consume per day?

A

From ages 16-500 is 2400-2800

181
Q

How many calories to consume for females

A

From ages 16-50. 2000-2200

182
Q

What three S should we avoid?

A

Salt , sugar and saturated fat

183
Q

How much energy is expended during thermic effect of digestion?

A

8%

184
Q

How much energy is expended during lifestyle or activity choices

A

32%

185
Q

What is positive caloric balance?

A

More caloric intake than caloric output

186
Q

What is negative caloric balance

A

More caloric output than caloric intake

187
Q

BMI table

A

Below 18.5 = underweight
18.5-24.9= normal
25.0-29.9= overweight
30.0 and above = obese

188
Q

How to calculate BMI

A

Body mass index kg / height (²)

189
Q

Down fall of BMI?

A

It is not measuring body fat. So it’s inaccurate towards muscular individuals

190
Q

What is hydrostatic weighing

A

Submerging a person in water getting rid of their air and weigh them.

191
Q

What is air displacement plethysmography?

A

volume and pressure inside the chamber are known.

When a person is in the chamber, decreased volume of air will increase pressure

192
Q

What is bielectrical impedance?

A

See how much body fat someone has. Seeing the speed and electric goes through

193
Q

How much of the American population is considered obese?

A

42%

194
Q

Which populations are most recorded to be obese?

A

African American, Hispanic and Caucasian adults

195
Q

What waistline measurement indicated excessive fat?

A

> 40” for men
35 “ for women

196
Q

What is the measurement for hypertension

A

130/85 mmhg

197
Q

What is the measurement for high fasting blood glucose?

A

100-125 mg/dl

198
Q

How much should mean consume for sugar?

A

No more than 36 grams

199
Q

How much added sugar should women drink?

A

25 grams per day

200
Q

Define gamete

A

A mature haploid cell of male or female. They have the ability to unite with the opposite sex for reproduction

201
Q

Define acromegaly

A

Too much growth hormone is given and causes ⬆️ in jaw formation and other bone psrt

Human Phyisology Cuesta College Bio 205 (12 decks)

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