U.S healthcare exam 3 Flashcards

Question

Health Literacy and Numeracy

Answer 1

From 2013 Majority of people are below the proficient level of understanding their health and health brochures Try to get convo. To 5th grade level, fewer syllables is better Break things down for folks

Answer 2

Zone in one this Use to assess someone’s ability to understand material Look at these tests How many grams of total carbs are in ½ cups: 13g Have to teach people these things cause not everyone can do these word problems Things to know to counsel patient Health literacy tools make sure student can say these words and you will see how literate they are based on the words they say Is kidney more associated to urine or fever?

Answer 3

SMOG (“Simple Measure of Gobbledygook”) Readability Test Fry Readability Test Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level Readability Formula SAM (Suitability Assessment of Materials)

Answer 4

For looking at a booklet Take 30 sentences and see how many words have 3 or syllables Put hand on chin, every time your jaw drops then it is a syllable

Answer 5

Average # of sentences and average # of syllables per 100 words Section 100 words and how many sentences are made for 100 words Least amount of sentences More syllables = more difficult for person to read Want short sentences and fewer syllables

Answer 6

word file options show readability stats

Answer 7

Label is not easy to see Patient centered labelling We need to improve labelling of OTC

Answer 8

Ppl did not understand their health insurance Only 11% of people could figure out the cost of hospitalization Make sure that we know if the patient understands the med Take 1 tablet every day- can take it anytime Best time to take statin - at night time because cholesterol is made at night so you take at night to reduce how much is made in the body Tell them when to take it Be more specific for better outcomes Based on Rx directions, effects health outcomes

Answer 9

Purchasers supply the funds Insurers receive the funds, pay providers Providers provide the care, all health care providers Suppliers provide the treatments and supplies to providers

Answer 10

Insurers, providers, and suppliers make up the healthcare industry. Previously: - Gain for health industry  Thought of as an investment in economics of the nation Now: - Too much to pay, purchasers want to reduce the amount spent while health care wants the number to increase

Answer 11

Alliance of insurers and providers Many independent hospitals Lack of competition Hospitals and insurers decided payment provisions of Medicare and Medicaid Providers had the “upper hand” in negotiating generous payments Insurers paid without much question Employers paying for insurance and receiving tax benefits; no real complaints of increased costs Businesses growing and profitable Able to pay for benefits *Hospitals even charged for facilities and new construction* who benefits: purchasers, insurers, providers, suppliers

Answer 12

US share of world industrial production decreasing from 60% in 1950 to 30% in 1980 - Lower profits - Purchase cash flow decreased - Inflation and unemployment on the rise New economic reality of less money for individuals and companies, becomes increased concern for the rising costs of health care - Hospitals being regulated for new construction - Government begins health planning agencies Regulation begins after Blue Cross increase of premiums 25% to 50% in a single year Utilization reviews begin by insurers - Provider-insurer tensions rise - Insurance-provider pact unravels-Blue Cross separates from the AHA insurers benefits purchasers and suppliers do not benefit providers benefit only half way

Answer 13

Plan become very specific as to where and from whom care can be provided and covered Employers shop around more for insurers Providers would lose contracts due to poor rates and unwillingness of insurers to negotiate Purchasers had some negotiating power with HMOs and saw a drop in premium growth in the earlier 1990’s providers do not benefit purchasers benefit insurers benefit only 50% suppliers remain steady

Answer 14

Costs increase for employer-sponsored health plans By 1989 =20.4% of business expenses (it was a fraction of the cost from1945-1970) Almost a double increase (from 5% to 9%) of payroll spent on health care benefits Business more attentive to costs and health care issues Large companies start self-insurance More companies use managed care options such as HMOs as cost-control Individuals and labor unions see shift of costs to them; complain of health care costs Rising premiums and policy cancellations for those with chronic illnesses become media headlines Selective contracting of purchasers = In-network and Out-of-Network Insurers choose providers to contract with (those that provide cost containment) Shift from fee for service to capitated reimbursement-causes providers to cost-control as well Medicare payments are tighter controlled and Medicaid is scaled back insurers, purchasers and suppliers dod not benefit at all but suppliers remain steady

Answer 15

Counter-revolution by providers/Consolidation in health care market Provider and insurance negotiations are intense Costs accelerate especially for the individual employee-Premiums and deductibles rise 34% Large HMOs emerge due to buy-outs and consolidation Growing power of specialists and specialty services For-profit services, physician owned imaging facilities Specialist physician groups grow and negotiate for higher payment rates from insurers Ambulatory centers for day surgery and clinics grew and are physician owned Hospitalists are a growing specialty purchasers and insurers benefit providers and suppliers do not benefit

Answer 16

Pharmaceutical industry criticisms - 1988 Rx was 5.5% of national health expenses versus in 2009 10.1 - Shift of insurance coverage of Rxs occur; Insurances take notice and begin to challenge pharmaceutical costs; Tiers begin - Most profitable companies: earning 20% of revenues compared to other Fortune 500 companies that earn 5% of revenues - No regulations by the government to regulate prices - Brand to generic tactics to continue market share-Hatch-Waxman Act - Generic manufacturers are consolidating driving up generic costs - “Evergreening”- Immediate release vs extended release – Rx to OTC Pharmacy Benefit Managers (PBM) --Part of the supply chain and responsible for formularies suppliers benefit

Answer 17

Primary care practices looking at capitation versus fee-for-service Choosing Wisely campaign spotlights overuse of health care http://www.choosingwisely.org/patient-resources/ Payment for value versus volume Patient-Oriented care on the rise Primary care teams are forming

Answer 18

Noble aspirations but most likely impossible to attain 100% Important factors of health care system: Improve health Control costs Prioritize allocation of resources Enhance quality of care Distribute services fairly

Answer 19

Insurers acquiring Providers: UnitedHealthcare acquired DaVita Medical Group Providers acquiring Insurers: CVS merging with Aetna Providers acquiring Suppliers: CVS merging with Caremark Insurers acquiring Suppliers: Cigna merging with ExpressScripts Companies moving into health care: Amazon

Answer 20

Travel costs and arrangements Childcare Time off work Therapy costs and insurance coverage

Answer 21

Patients have adopted a consumer mentality towards engaging in their health seeking to meet their needs on demand. Home as the center of health is a quickly growing area of focus in medicine including the 'Hospital at Home' model Meeting patients where they are at is a growing healthcare business structure across multiple care modalities.

Answer 22

Digital tools are giving providers a more holistic view of patient health through access to data and giving patients more control over their health. Digital health offers real opportunities to improve medical outcomes and enhance efficiency. Reduce inefficiencies Improve access Reduce costs Increase quality Make medicine more personalized for patients.

Answer 23

As of 2021, nearly 4 in 5 office-based physicians (78%) and nearly all non-federal acute care hospitals (96%) adopted a certified EHR. This marks substantial 10-year progress since 2011 when 28% of hospitals and 34% of physicians had adopted an EHR.

Answer 24

Telehealth — sometimes called telemedicine — lets your health care provider care for you without an in-person office visit. Telehealth is done primarily online with internet access on your computer, tablet, or smartphone. Talk to your health care provider live over the phone or video chat. Send and receive messages from your health care provider using secure messaging, email, and secure file exchange. Majority of payers cover telehealth services for members Expansion of services available pre-pandemic Mental and psychological health over state lines

Answer 25

Devices monitor physiological data from patients CPT codes for setting up and monitoring data available from CMS RPM can be used for many conditions that require physiological data indicative of disease management Some patients will need in-person testing, diagnostics, or monitoring. This depends on their condition, Internet capabilities, or personal preferences and abilities. But there are many ways that remote patient monitoring can help with chronic conditions, pregnancy complications, and short-term illness. High blood pressure Diabetes Weight loss or gain Heart conditions Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Sleep apnea Asthma

Answer 26

Combination of technology like RPM devices and disease management for therapeutic outcomes This can include medication adherence and physiological data Interventions can include education and coaching Currently, CMS covers pulmonary and musculoskeletal conditions CPT code 98976 - RTM (e.g., respiratory system status, musculoskeletal system status, therapy adherence, therapy response); device(s) supply with scheduled (e.g., daily) recording(s) and/or programmed alert(s) transmission to monitor respiratory system, each 30 days.

Answer 27

Integration of health devices into the ‘Internet of Things (IoT) landscape approaches include: Integration of Bluetooth to tether to an external device (e.g., smartphone or peripheral) Mobile app integration for data collection and user engagement Enabled the movement towards: Remote Patient Monitoring (RPM) Remote Therapeutic Monitoring (RTM) Ongoing Issues: Accuracy, data interoperability, coverage, patient education, user adherence

Answer 28

Increased desire amongst PwD to utilize CGM over other BGM interventions due to fewer finger pricks and convenience Visually impaired patients have benefited from easier BGM Digital affinity closely related towards acceptance of the use of CGM technologies - This is likely to increase over time with digital natives Increased recommendation of CGM use in clinical practice guidelines influencing clinician behavior Limitations still present: Cost barriers Clinician and patient buy-in Technology barriers

Answer 29

hospital at-home model home is the center of care ER/provoder identificaton of patient identification of valid patient conditions of defined treatment protocols - HF, COPD, CAP, cellulitis patient home is within hospital range to provide emergent care home must have space and fit patient needs - food, heat/cooling, water health staff visit patients in the home (ex. respiratory therapist, nursing)- kinda like UK! tests conducted in the patient home and therapy (ex. medications) given as well RPM will play a significant role

Answer 30

19th century public health closely tied to social reform movements: campaigns for improved housing, trade unions, abolition of child labor, child and maternal health Public Health viewed as a broad social movement Winslow’s 80 yr old definition: the role of PH is the development of the social machinery to ensure every individual in the community a standard of living adequate for maintenance of health.

Answer 31

Distribution of benefits/burdens and responsibilities within a society Free market vs government responsible for allocation and delivery of resources Health care access a right vs ability to pay Health care an individual vs collective responsibility Role of PH in society, broad and expansive vs restrictive

Answer 32

Health is a collective responsibility Emphasizes community well-being Views health care as a social resource Allocation and delivery of health care resources governed by need Minimum levels of income, housing, employment, education and health care are fundamental rights PH closely tied to social reform movements (public hygiene, improved housing, abolition of child labor, maternal and child health, trade unions

Answer 33

Emphasizes collective responsibility for health Emphasized community well-being Strong obligation to the collective good Access to health care universal Proposes public solutions to social problems (drug abuse, homelessness, violence)

Answer 34

Health is an individual responsibility Emphasis on individual well-being Views health care as an economic good Allocation and delivery of health care resources governed by demand Powerful forces of environment, heredity, social structure prevent equitable distribution of the burdens and benefits of PH

Answer 35

PH is an enterprise focused on controlling communicable disease or as a safety net that provides medical care to the indigent Encouraged by MD’s Limits federal health funding to programs run by local health departments Medical care distribution based on the ability to pay

Answer 36

Access to medical care is viewed as an economic reward for personal effort and achievement Role of government and public health - Restricted, narrow - Limited to a technical enterprise

Answer 37

Economic impact Individual liberty Moral and religious concerns/values Political interference with science

Answer 38

PH measures may have negative impact on segment of population or industry Those paying for PH measures may not benefit from those measures Costs are measurable/benefits are often not Costs may be short-term while benefits may not be immediately seen Example of a PH initiative with significant economic impact? Discuss in groups of 3 to 4.

Answer 39

Tobacco industry: product labeling, bans on smoking in public places, restaurants Lumber industry: regulations cost jobs to preserve a long term stable climate Standing orders for Narcan in community pharmacies: high cost to insurance companies Mandatory immunizations

Answer 40

To what extent can and should the government restrict individual freedom for the purpose of improving the community’s health Restrictions on behaviors that may cause direct or indirect harm to others Restrictions may benefit the individual or the community Example of PH initiative affecting individual liberty?

Answer 41

Seat belts Bike helmets Extra large soft drinks Removal of vending machines in public areas Additional driving tests for elderly Mandatory health screenings Mandatory immunizations

Answer 42

Some PH initiatives provoke moral or religious objection Discussion of some PH issues are offensive or embarrassing to discuss (sex and reproduction, alcohol and drug addiction, suicide and end of life decisions) Can the government determine and enforce moral behavior? Some religions may prohibit some common PH initiatives (birth control, immunizations)

Answer 43

Presidential administrations criticized for misrepresenting and/or distorting scientific information and evidence to support its policies and political agenda Examples: Bush admin pressured CDC to promote abstinence only programs for preventing teen pregnancy Promoted condom failure rates rather than place in prevention of spread of AIDS and other STD’s Prevented publication of research on agriculture affect on antibiotic drug resistance Handling of the AIDS crisis Handling of drug/alcohol addiction crisis

Answer 44

Public health workers monitor the health of a community by collecting and analyzing health data Health statistics - Identify special risk groups - Detect new health threats - Determine success of disease state management - Help plan and evaluate success of public health programs - Are considered when preparing government budgets

Answer 45

Provide raw data for research on Epidemiology Environmental health Social and behavioral factors in health The health care system Essential for the Assessment Function in public health

Answer 46

National Center for Health Statistics Primary agency that collects, analyzes and reports data on the health of Americans Part of the CDC Collects data in two ways - States and local agencies periodically transmit data they have compiled from local records: vital stats, births and deaths - Conducts periodic surveys of representative samples of the population on health status, lifestyle, health-related behaviors, onset and diagnosis of illness and disability, use of health care resources

Answer 47

Births and deaths are the most basic and reliable and complete data set Causes of death subject to uncertainties Utilize birth and death certificates Vital Statistics also include information on marriage, divorce, spontaneous fetal deaths and abortions The state health department is generally responsible for collecting these reports and transmitting them periodically to the NCHS

Answer 48

Mother supplies information about the baby’s family (names, address, ages, race, ethnicity, education level) Medical and health information supplied by hospital, doctor, birth attendant (prenatal care, birth weight, medical risk factors, complications during delivery, OB procedures, abnormalities in the newborn)

Answer 49

The number of people in the population is necessary in order to convert the data collected through vital statistic systems into rates per number of people The number of people in the population serves as the denominator when a vital statistic is used as the numerator. To calculate age-adjusted or age-specific rates it is necessary to know how many people are in each age group

Answer 50

To determine sex-specific or race-specific rates, we need to know how many males and females there are in a population as well as the breakdown of races within the population The Constitution requires that the population of the United States be counted every 10 years to determine each state’s representation in the House of Representatives 2 controversial issues - How race is determined - Ability to accurately count every individual household

Answer 51

A major change in the way the 2010 census was conducted was that only - the most basic data was collected using a short form (included name, sex, race and ethnicity, and relationship of everyone living in the household) American Community Survey (ACS) launched in 2005 by the Census Bureau - Same information as long form - Sent to 3 million households selected to be representative of the populations of local jurisdictions - designed to help communities plan for transportation systems, zoning, schools, healthcare facilities, housing and social services

Answer 52

In addition to collecting data from the states, NCHS actively conducts a number of surveys to gather additional information on the health of the American public Two ongoing NCHS surveys The National Heath and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) Designed to obtain detailed and accurate information Doctors and nurses conduct physical and dental exams and lab tests on a carefully selected sample of the population Data collected determines prevalence of chronic conditions and risk factors as well as nutritional status and its association with chronic disease

Answer 53

Two ongoing NCHS surveys The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Survey (BRFSS) - Largest telephone survey in the world - Self reported data (may be less reliable) - The only available source of timely, accurate data on health-related behaviors - Conducted by the states which report their findings to the CDC - Asks questions about health status, high risk behaviors, physical activity, preventive medical care

Answer 54

National Youth Fitness Survey National Survey on Family Growth National Immunization Survey National Asthma Survey in collaboration with the CDC National Center for Environmental Health National Infant Feeding Practices Study

Answer 55

EPA surveillance for health hazards in the environment National Cancer Institute monitors long-term trends of cancer incidence and mortality through a program called Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End-Results (SEER) The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services utilize billing records for research on utilization and outcomes of medical care

Answer 56

Data is critically important in making up the surveillance systems that form the basis of effective public health practice as well as the planning and evaluation efforts that are increasingly being used in public health programming The success of intervention programs to confront a problem is evaluated based on whether they improve the statistics

Answer 57

The process of data collection is always imperfect Health information relying on surveys or voluntary reports are often incomplete or subject to bias Census information contains errors and there are political difficulties in attempting to correct these errors

Answer 58

Errors exist in reporting cause of death on death certificates Maternal deaths are suspected of being underreported because doctors fail to indicate the woman was pregnant on the death certificate The data collection and reporting processes contain sources of inaccuracy and bias

Answer 59

New information technology (public health informatics) has vastly improved accessibility of information to public health workers and the general public

Answer 60

All information collected from individuals by governments for whatever purpose is considered confidential and cannot be divulged without the consent of the individual Information is generally entered into a database without any names, addresses or personal identifiers Exception: when someone has been exposed to a communicable disease they must be notified

Answer 61

PH problems are identified in terms of statistics Data is the basis of the statistics utilized in PH initiatives Success of PH initiatives is evaluated based on improvement in statistics

Answer 62

collection of the necessary subjective and objective info. about the patient to understand the relevant medical/medication history and clinical status of the patient the pharmacist assesses the clinical effects of the patient's therapy in the context of the patient's overall health goals to identify and prioritize problems and achieve optimal care develop a plan to combat the issue that is evidence-based and cost-effective put a plan into place with other health care professionals and patient or caregivers evaluate the effectiveness of the plan

Answer 63

Development of the treatment plan Determines what will be done Informs, educates and empowers people about health issues Mobilizes community partnerships to identify and solve health problems through DPH Develops policies and plans that support individual and community health efforts Uses scientific knowledge to devise strategic approaches to improve community health

Answer 64

The role of the pharmacist

Answer 65

Measure of the general, overall state of health of a population or society Measures that people take to bring about and maintain the health of a population or society

Answer 66

The science and the art of preventing disease, prolonging life, and promoting physical health and efficiency through organized community efforts for the: Sanitation of the environment Control of community infections Education of individuals in principles of personal hygiene Organization of medical and nursing services for early diagnosis and prevention of disease Development of social machinery which will ensure to every individual a standard of living adequate for the maintenance of health

Answer 67

Public health is the science of protecting and improving the health of families and communities through promotion of healthy lifestyles, research for disease and injury prevention and detection and control of infectious diseases.

Answer 68

monitor health through epidemiology detect and investigate health problems conduct research to enhance prevention develop and advocate sound public health policies implement prevention strategies like with covid: masks, 6 feet away promote healthy behaviors foster safe and healthful environments provide leadership and training

Answer 69

1988 definition, The Future of Public Health by the Institute of Medicine (4 part definition) Mission: The fulfillment of society’s interest in assuring the conditions in which people (population not individuals) can be healthy Substance: Organized community efforts aimed at the prevention of disease and the promotion of health

Answer 70

Organizational framework: encompasses both activities undertaken within the formal structure of government and the associated efforts of private and voluntary organizations of individuals 3 Core functions of public health (Table 1-1) *on exam* Assessment Policy Development Assurance that policies are working

Answer 71

The diagnostic function- what do we need to do Determines what should be done Examines the current health status and threats to health that exist in a community Requires surveillance of disease, identifies needs, monitors trends and analyzes causes Diagnoses and investigates health problems and health hazards in the community

Answer 72

Equivalent to the actual treatment plan Determines what is being done Enforcement of laws and regulations that protect health and ensure safety (interventions) Link the public to health services and ensure the provision of health care Assure a competent public health and personal healthcare workforce Evaluate effectiveness, accessibility, and quality of personal and population-based health services

Answer 73

assessment policy development assurance

Answer 74

Prevents epidemics and the spread of disease Protects against environmental hazards like hurricanes and such Prevents injuries Promotes and encourages healthy behaviors Responds to disasters and assists communities in recovery Assures the quality and accessibility of health services

Answer 75

Public Health: - The “Patient is the Community” - The goal or focus is on prevention (abstract, difficult to quantify and recognize) - Accounts for approximately 3% of health spending - Decision makers are public health experts, involve scientific recommendation/evidence-based medicine, government intervention

Answer 76

Medical Care -The Patient is an individual - The goal or focus is to treat and cure those who are ill (benefits are easier to quantify and recognize) - Accounts for approximately 97% of health spending - Decision makers are physicians, mid-level providers, and the individual patient

Answer 77

Public Health core functions: Assessment, Policy Development, Assurance Medical Care core functions: Diagnosis, Providing Treatment Options, Actual Treatment, easier-to-quantify implementation

Answer 78

Science: the understanding of threats to health, determining necessary interventions, evaluating efficacy of interventions Politics: determine policies for development, implementation, and assurance

Answer 79

Epidemiology Statistics Biomedical Sciences Environmental Health Sciences Social and Behavioral Sciences Health policy, management, and administration - need to be thoughtful

Answer 80

The basic science of public health - need to know what's going on in pop. before developing interventions The study of epidemics (or common exposures, shared characteristics) Seeks causative factors of acute and chronic diseases and strategies to limit exposure Aims to control the spread of disease

Answer 81

Data/numbers are diagnostic tools that aid in the determination of risk The government collects data on populations Statistics also assess the benefits of interventions

Answer 82

A major proportion of disease is caused by microorganisms Prevention and control of diseases requires understanding of infectious agents Lead to understanding of risk factors for non-infectious chronic diseases Includes study of genetic predisposition and effects on disease risk, prevention and treatment

Answer 83

A component of public health Concerned with preventing the spread of disease through water, air, and food Shares concerned about the spread of infectious organisms Depends on epidemiology to track environmental causes of disease within certain communities, there might be environmental contributors that can affect life span ex: 84 life expectancy in 1 region and 72 life expectancy in another region

Answer 84

People are negatively impacted by diseases caused by their behavior and their social environment There are many disparities in health between subgroups of the population, the causes of the disparities are often unknown Some subgroups of the population have poorer health overall than others related to social and behavioral sciences disparities between white and black health outcome

Answer 85

Attempts to address: Rising cost of healthcare Access to healthcare Quality of healthcare Role of public health in medical care

Answer 86

How are the 6 disciplines used to accomplish the 3 core functions? -Assessment -Policy Development -Assurance

Answer 87

5-step process: 1. Define the health problem 2. Identify the risk factors associated with the problem 3. Develop and test community-level interventions to control or prevent the cause of the problem 4. Implement interventions to improve the health of the population 5. Monitor those interventions to assess their effectiveness plan do study act this is a continuous cycle

Answer 88

PH = prevention of disease PH = keeping a population healthy Prevention --Requires development of interventions aimed at specific health problems or behaviors What are some interventions we see every day? - billboards

Answer 89

Prevention at 3 levels/stages Chain of causation

Answer 90

Primary prevention: aims to prevent an illness or injury from happening at all by preventing exposure to the risk (true prevention) - COVID: having people stay home, could not be exposed to COVID if they did not go anywhere, also masks Secondary prevention: aims to minimize the severity of the illness or injury when it occurs (early detection and treatment) Tertiary prevention: aims to minimize disability by providing medical care and rehabilitation. Happened in hospitals, aiming to minimize the severity and disability vaccinations are secondary preventions: were not designed to prevent COVID-19 but to prevent the severity of the disease if you got covid

Answer 91

Primary: discouraging teenagers from smoking and efforts to encourage smokers to quit (preventing lung cancer and COPD). Have laws in place to prevent ppl under 18 from getting cigarettes. Stop exposure Secondary: screening programs for early cancer detection Tertiary: medical treatment and rehabilitation for cancer patients

Answer 92

Involves Agent: could be a disease-causing bacteria or virus. The goal is to eliminate or minimize. For lung cancer: smoke or cigarettes. Anyhting that causes the disease Host: a human being. The goal is to make less susceptible/strengthen resistance to the agent like with a vaccine Environment: the means of transmission by which the agent reaches the host. The goal is to make the host less likely to encounter the environment and decrease or eliminate the means of transmission. For COVID: school, grocery stores, public transportation goal: make the host less likely to be in an environment

Answer 93

PH goal: prevent suicides in the age group 15 to 24 Host: susceptible young people Agent: guns, overdose Environment: the young person’s social environment (family, school, social media) PH intervention: change messages in the media, reduce access to guns and drugs for overdose reduce access to guns, interrupt the chain of causation something needs to change

Answer 94

The goal is to interrupt the chain: Think of an illness or injury Identify the agent, host, and environment Describe how you would interrupt the chain of causation related to the agent, host, and environment can change host by vaccinating them, educating them

Answer 95

Public health response to disasters and terrorism helps control damage and prevent further harm to survivors and rescuers. What level of prevention is this? Primary?- prevent exposure to agent Secondary?- help to reduce the severity of agents like a vaccine Tertiary?- how we take care of people who have exposure evacuate from hazard: primary prevention terrorist attack: no primary prevention *I think* this is secondary because the disaster has ALREADY happened (so it cannot be primary because if it was then we would be preventing it from happening at all) and we are trying to prevent FURTHER harm from continuing. If tertiary then we would be providing something for the survivors to RECOVER from the disaster

Answer 96

do not make a lot of money costs money

Answer 97

also in PH by collecting assessing plan implement follow-up do this for pop. and not just individual

Answer 98

Determined by law Government’s public health activities must be authorized by legislation at the federal, state, or local levels' The body of public health law is huge, consisting of all written statements relating to health by any of the three branches of government

Answer 99

Does not mention health Tenth Amendment states that “the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution…are reserved to the States respectively. Preamble includes “to promote the general welfare” Gives federal government authority to regulate interstate commerce and “to collect taxes…to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and the general welfare:

Answer 100

Interstate commerce provision: justifies the activities of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Power to tax and spend: (1967) lead to federally mandated motorcycle helmet laws as a condition of federal funding for highways Federal government provides 50 to 80% of Medicaid funding though states and counties administer the programs

Answer 101

From WW II to the 1980s the federal government used its powers to widen its role in public health Trend reversed in 1980 due to politically hostile climate in government Movement in Congress and the Supreme Court to cut government regulations and return power to the individual states

Answer 102

Limited Congress’s powers and returned authority to the states Supreme Court struck down a law making gun possession within a school zone a federal offence, rejecting that gun possession was a matter of interstate commerce New federalism lost much of its momentum after 9/11 when the role of the federal government in public health looked useful and necessary In 2003 this movement seemed to reverse, giving federal law more power over state law

Answer 103

Governments have police power (broad power) to act in ways that curtail the rights of individuals. Police powers are invoked for 3 reasons --To prevent a person from harming others (direct or indirect) --To defend the interests of incompetent persons such as children or the mentally handicapped --To protect a person from harming him or herself

Answer 104

Mandatory vaccinations Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) Some may argue that prior to government implementing PH initiatives a cost benefit and feasibility analysis should be considered.

Answer 105

Local Agencies Have day to day responsibility for public health activities and provide the bulk of services (include collecting statistics, conducting communicable disease control programs, health screenings, immunization clinics, provision of medical care to the indigent) Organization varies from state to state (most common is county health departments, large cities have municipal health departments, towns have boards of health, rural areas have multicounty health departments ) Funding varies from state to state, including state, federal and local taxes, fees for services

Answer 106

State Agencies - Has primary responsibility and authority for the protection of health, safety and general welfare of the population Most states have a state health department (Mass Dept of Public Health) Funding depends heavily on federal money Define to varying degrees the activities of local health departments Charged with licensing and certification of medical personnel, facilities and services Administer Medicaid programs

Answer 107

Federal Agencies Fall under jurisdiction of the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) The Surgeon General is the nation’s leading spokesperson on matters of public health Agencies include CDC – the main assessment and epidemiologic agency (figure 3-4) NIH – the greatest biomedical research complex in the world (Box 3-1) FDA

Answer 108

Mission is to control and prevent human diseases Traditionally focus has been on infectious diseases (crisis oriented) Change in focus and expanded mission includes chronic diseases, genetics, injury, violence and environmental health

Answer 109

The greatest biomedical research complex in the world Supports research ranging from basic cellular processes to physiological errors that underlie human diseases Includes the National Library of Medicine, the largest reference library for medical centers around the world

Answer 110

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Department of Agriculture Department of Education Department of Transportation Department of Labor Department of Veterans Affairs Department of Homeland Security

Answer 111

Your Public Health Division works to protect and improve community well-being by preventing disease and injury while promoting social, economic and environmental factors fundamental to health. This Division is the foundation of the local public health system that comprises public- and private-sector health care providers, academia, community based organizations, business, the media and other local and state governmental entities.

Answer 112

Track and investigate health problems and hazards in the community Prepare for and respond to public health emergencies Develop, apply and enforce policies, laws and regulations that improve health and ensure safety Lead efforts to mobilize communities around important health issues

Answer 113

Many nongovernmental organizations play important roles in public health, especially in education, lobbying and research American Cancer Society American Heart Association Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Disorders Association American Diabetes Association

Answer 114

Conduct campaigns to educate the public Sponsor research on a particular disease Include professional membership organizations Include several major philanthropic foundations providing funding for supporting research or special projects, health care to certain populations and support for health and public policy development

Answer 115

prevention effectiveness epidemiology laboratory informatics surveillance

Answer 116

the study of - the patterns of disease occurrence in human populations, - the factors that influence these patterns - the application of this study to the prevention and control of health problems Descriptive Epidemiology: It looks to find the answers of person (who), place (where) and time (when) of a disease or other health-related event Analytic Epidemiology Why and how questions are answered by Epidemiology is not only concerned with only death, illness and disability; but also positive health states and the means to improve health

Answer 117

Time: - Do disease patterns differ by time of year? Are they seasonal? Person: - Do disease patterns differ by age or gender? - Are certain groups of people at a higher risk of developing a disease or complications from an illness? Place: - Do disease patterns differ on geographical areas? Combination of time, person, & place Age groups stratified by location

Answer 118

Discover the agent, host, and environmental factors that affect health Determine the relative importance of causes of illness, disability, and death Identify those in the population that have the greatest risk from specific causes of illness Evaluate the effectiveness of health programs and services in improving population health

Answer 119

host - age - race - sex - genetic profile - previous disease - immune status - religion - customs - occupation - marital status - family background agent - biologic (bacteria, viruses) - chemical (poison, alcohol, smoke) - physical (trauma, radiation, fire) - nutritional (lack, excess) environment - temp, humidity, altitude - crowding, housing, neighborhood - water, milk, food - radiation, pollution, noise

Answer 120

Epidemic or outbreak: disease occurrence among a population that is more than what is expected in a given time Endemic: disease or condition present among a population at all times; always there Pandemic: a disease or condition that spreads over a wide geographic area and affects an exceptionally large population across regions, maybe worldwide--globally Surveillance: Ongoing systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of health data needed for planning, implementation, and evaluation of public health practice Cluster: a group of cases in a specific time and place that might be more than expected.

Answer 121

surveillance: what is the problem (problem) identify risk factors: what is the cause intervention evaluations: what works implementation: how do you do it (response)

Answer 122

C! Providing treatment for patients in clinical settings- Leave it to physician which is what I put randomly LOL

Answer 123

epidemic (or outbreak) the key is EXCESS; the agent is more than what we want

Answer 124

Epidemiologic surveillance is a major line of defense in protecting the public against disease It is a warning system that alerts communities that something is wrong Once an outbreak is discovered, public health officials can begin to take action to prevent the spread of disease - Immunizations - Isolation of an infected person - Recall of medication or contaminated food

Answer 125

The Federal government has a list of notifiable diseases that a healthcare provider must report to the public health department: Hepatitis B HIV STDs Tuberculosis COVID-19 Surveillance is ongoing and systematic

Answer 126

Construct a working case definition Perform descriptive epidemiology (Who, Where, When) Implementing control and prevention measures Initiate or maintain surveillance Communicating findings to stakeholders, community etc

Answer 127

Step 1- Construct a working case definition Establish a case definition by using a standard set of criteria Probable Case: Have signs and symptoms but no confirmed laboratory work Confirmed Case: Have signs and symptoms with laboratory confirmation

Answer 128

Clinical case definition: An illness with sudden onset of fever (>380C and one or more of the following: neck stiffness, altered consciousness, other meningeal signs or petechial or puerperal rash Lab diagnosis: Positive cerebrospinal (CSF) fluid antigen detection or positive culture Case classifications: Suspected: Meets clinical case definition Probable: As suspected case and turbid CSF (with or without positive Gram stain) or ongoing epidemic and epidemiological link to a confirmed case Confirmed: A suspected or probable case with laboratory confirmation

Answer 129

Step 2- Perform descriptive epidemiology- This step is very important because it will: Summarize data by key demographic variables Provide trends over time, geographic areas and the population affected From this information you can infer the population at risk for the disease Can provide clues about the source, modes of transmission Can begin interventions and preventative measures to control disease Establish epidemic curve-shows magnitude of disease over time

Answer 130

Step 3- Implement control and prevention measures - Control and prevent additional cases is the primary goal. If appropriate measures are known they should be put in place as early as possible. - Masks for respiratory transmission, spraying or bed nets for mosquito transmission Step 4- Initiate or maintain surveillance Once control measures are in place must monitor to see if working or not

Answer 131

Step 5- Communicate findings Determine who needs to know Local health authorities. Medical community, general public, lawmakers Determine how information will be communicated Oral briefings via news of implementation of control and prevention measures Identify why information needs to be communicated Control spread of illness

Answer 132

New regulations may result from the findings Legionnaire's disease led to the development of new regulations worldwide for climate control systems (A/C systems and cleaning requirements) More recent outbreak that led to changes in regulations: - Meningitis outbreak of 2012 from New England Compounding Center (NECC) - Changed continuing education requirements for pharmacists conducting sterile and non-sterile compounding - Owner of pharmacy found guilty on 57 of 96 charges- serving 9 years in prison - Chief pharmacist- charged with 25 counts of second degree murder (found not guilty) found guilty on racketeering charges- Serving 8 years in prison

Answer 133

Epidemiology is also useful in identifying the causes of some chronic diseases Can show links between the occurrence of disease with exposure to risk factors Chronic diseases develop over time and do not have a single cause Risk factor concept: a particular biologic, lifestyle & social conditions are associated with increased risk for specific chronic diseases

Answer 134

Framingham Heart Study - Began collecting data in 1948- still collecting today - Was the first epidemiologic study of a chronic disease - > 5000 healthy, middle-aged subjects in Framingham, MA- examined every 2 years Findings from this study: Three major risk factors for heart disease are: - High cholesterol - Hypertension - Smoking

Answer 135

In 1971- the study continued to the off-spring of the original study subjects In 2001-2002- the grandchildren of the original study subjects became part of the study This type of study is called prospective cohort study because it follows the subjects through time Guidelines to treat cardiac conditions such as hypertension and dyslipidemia have been developed based upon the knowledge gained in this study

Answer 136

Data from these trials helps us today in medicine for evidence-based recommendations The Framingham Heart Study found: - Weight gain and lack of exercise are associated with high blood pressure and high cholesterol levels therefore increasing the risk of heart disease Expanded studies found; - Effects of quitting smoking - “Good” cholesterol versus “bad” cholesterol” - Alcohol in moderation has beneficial effects

Answer 137

What link has been associated with lung cancer? Two landmark studies: Doll and Hill (UK) - Death rate from lung cancer was 20 times higher in smokers than in non-smokers - Death from heart attacks was significantly higher in heavy smokers aged 35-54 than in non-smokers Hammond and Horn (US) - Smokers are 10 times more likely to die of lung cancer than non-smokers - Heavy smokers are 2.4 times more likely to die of heart disease than non-smokers

Answer 138

BW is 59 year old African-American male with atrial fibrillation and hypertension. He currently takes aspirin, lisinopril, hydrochlorothiazide daily. - Lipid panel: TC 201, LDL 160, HDL 30, TG 180, - Blood pressure 170/90 - Smoked 1 pack of cigarettes a day for 30 years What is his ASCVD 10-year risk Score? Lifetime score?

Answer 139

Epidemiology is an important component of the assessment function of public health Epidemiologists investigate epidemics by counting the number of cases and how they are distributed by person, place, and time Epidemiology also provides information on the cause of chronic diseases Epidemiology’s role in identifying causes of disease leads directly and indirectly to prevention and control To achieve improvements in public health: Agencies build on the information from information gathered from epidemiological studies to develop policies They help plan programs aimed at reducing risk and promoting health in the population

Answer 140

Case Control Cohort Epidemic curve Incidence Intervention Study Probability Relative Risk Surveillance Bias Confounding variable P-value Significance Statistics

Answer 141

Studies are conducted in an attempt to discover associations between an exposure or risk factor and a health outcome

Answer 142

can be either: observational or experimental observational can be either: descriptive - who, when, where, hypothesis or analytic - how, tests hypothesis

Answer 143

Descriptive epidemiology asks - When was the population affected? - Who was affected? Analytic epidemiology asks - How was the population affected? Descriptive epidemiology asks - Where was the population affected? Analytic epidemiology asks - Why was the population affected?

Answer 144

Who: age, sex, race and economic status When: trends of disease frequency over time (is it increasing?, decreasing?, remaining stable?) When: tracking an outbreak. Use epidemic curves to plot the number of cases over some time. Where: compares disease frequency in different counties, states or countries or other geographic areas. Can also compare urban vs. rural areas

Answer 145

The information gathered on the distribution of disease gives clues about the determinants of disease. Determinants can be any underlying social, economic, cultural or environmental factors that are responsible for health and disease.

Answer 146

3 study designs: Cross-sectional Cohort Case-control Experimental studies to test efficacy of medications - Randomized Controlled Studies are used

Answer 147

When you have clues to the determinants of disease you can generate a hypothesis The hypothesis can be tested by formal/systematic epidemiologic studies These can confirm or disprove the hypothesis

Answer 148

Analyzes data of variables collected at one given point in time across a sample population or a pre-defined subset. Subjects are selected because they are members of a certain population at a certain period Provides a “snapshot” of exposures and outcomes

Answer 149

A study of a group of people, or cohort, followed over time to see how some disease or diseases develop The study typically begins with healthy subjects who are asked about their exposures These studies provide the best information about the causation of disease and the most direct measurement of the risk of developing a disease Prospective or retrospective and can take years to complete

Answer 150

Advantages Can study multiple outcomes Study uncommon & multiple exposures Provides clearer sequence of events Selection bias is not likely Directly calculate disease incidence Disadvantages Expensive & time consuming May take years to complete study Inefficient for rare outcomes or disease with long latent periods Data on some confounding variable may be missing Source of error Loss to follow-up

Answer 151

A study that compares individuals affected by a disease with a comparable group of persons who do not have the disease to determine possible causes or associations Those with the disease or condition are case-patients Those without the disease or condition are control-patients Epidemiologists work backward from the illness or health condition (retrospective in nature) to determine any associations Cases and controls are compared for the presence or absence of one or more specific exposures or risk factors Takes a shorter amount of time to complete All subjects are matched as much as possible (age, race, gender, other factors relative to the disease) match case/experiment patients with those that do not have the disease, one has the disease and one does not have one is retrospective tries to link the disease with exposure

Answer 152

start with population separate into cases and controls have both groups each be exposed and not exposed so in total tested 4 groups: 1 exposed and not exposed for case = 2 1 exposed and not exposed for control = 2 2 + 2 = 4

Answer 153

Advantages Can study multiple exposures They are efficient for rare diseases or diseases with a long latency period between exposure and disease manifestation Faster and easier to conduct than other studies Less expensive the more people, the more reliable data Disadvantages Bias can be a source of error Recall Bias Information Bias- will have to remember and they may not be able to recall Reporting bias Selection bias They are inefficient for rare exposures

Answer 154

deals with Randomized Controlled Trials (RCT) These types of studies are used to test new drugs for safety and efficacy before they are approved for marketing Start with two groups: Experimental group-will get the new treatment Control group-may get placebo Can be blinded or double blinded Subjects are randomized into groups Have an intervention occur (subjects given counseling and drug or no counseling with placebo)

Answer 155

Advantages Convincing Can control for confounders (known and unknown) Disadvantages Very expensive- millions of $$ Artificial environment Ethical issues- like will not do on pregnant women Difficult to conduct logistically

Answer 156

Rate is the number of cases but this number must be relative to the size of the of the population being studied. Population at risk (PAR): This number should only include people who are potentially susceptible to the disease being studied. Incidence is the rate of new cases of a disease in a defined population over a defined period of time Measures the probability that a healthy person in that PAR will develop that disease during that specific time Incidence-Expresses the risk of becoming ill. Must always include a unit of time- such as cases per 10^ n per day, week, month or year. Prevalence is the total number of cases of a disease existing in a defined population at a specific time Rates change slowly-not useful for epidemiologic studies Useful in assessing social impact of disease-affects planning Prevalence- Estimates the probability of the population being ill at the period of time being studied Prevalence is often expressed as cases per 100 (percentage) or per 1000 population. Mortality rate is the incidence of death per unit of time (usually per year) in a population, which can look at all deaths or a specific cause of death. With COVID, measure how many passed form COVID

Answer 157

Epidemiology identifies associations between exposures and outcomes Salt intake → Hypertension (direct association) Salt in take → Hypertension → Coronary artery disease (in-direct association) Types of measurements used in epidemiologic studies: Relative Risk Odds Ratio

Answer 158

measures: If an association exist, how strong is it? What is the ratio of the risk of disease in exposed individuals to the risk of disease in unexposed individuals? RR = 1.0 = no association between exposure and the disease. Cannot confirm or deny that exposure leads to outcome RR > 1.0= shows a positive association (increased risk from exposure) RR < 1.0 = Shows a negative association (decreased risk from exposure)- sometimes called a “protective effect” Typically used in COHORT (follow a group for a certain time) studies

Answer 159

What are the odds that the disease will develop in an exposed person? Association of an exposure and a disease Used in case-control studies Can not directly calculate the risk since subjects already started with the disease- it is an approximation of the relative risk OR = 1 no association, OR >1 positive association, OR < 1 negative association

Answer 160

a range of numbers and we are 95% sure that the true number falls in that range The 95% confidence interval (CI) is used to estimate the precision of the OR (also used in RR). A large CI indicates a low level of precision of the OR, whereas a small CI indicates a higher precision of the OR. In practice, the 95% CI is often used as a proxy for the presence of statistical significance if it does not overlap the null value (e.g. OR=1). Will look like this: RR=3 (95% CI 1.67-4.2); p<0.5 is a range of numbers narrow shows a really high precision and shows more confidence than wide if includes 1 it is not statically significant and we cannot say that there is an association because the true number could be 1 and for OR & RR there is no association 1.67 is higher than 1 so there is a positive assoication, it has to be 1.0 for it to really be 1

Answer 161

Confounding variables: Is a factor or explanation that may affect a result or conclusion. Bias- is a systematic error in the design, conduct or analysis of a study that results in a mistaken estimate of an exposure’s effect on the risk of disease. Selection bias: there is an error in choosing the individuals or groups to take part in a study This is often a problem in case-control studies Recall Bias: An error caused by differences in the accuracy or completeness of the recollections retrieved ("recalled") by study participants regarding events or experiences from the past. Is an issue in case-control studies

Answer 162

The P-value is the probability that the observed results occurred by chance alone In clinical trials, a p-value of 0.05 is often used This means if the study was conducted 100 times- the result would be the same 95 times and 5 times would have a different result We are comfortable with a 5% error but other disciplines have a much higher p-value (i.e. physics might set a p-value at 0.001)

Answer 163

Epidemiological studies usually speak of risk factors than causes. To make the results of a study stronger it is important to show a cause and effect relationship

Answer 164

A study with a large number of subjects is more likely to yield a valid result The Framingham Heart Study has thousands of participants This makes the results much more valid than a study of only 30 subjects The stronger the association measured between the exposure and disease the more likely there is a cause-and-effect relationship A RR of 20 in regards to smoking and lung cancer is a much stronger association than a RR of 1. So 20x more likely to get lung cancer from smoking than if I do not smoke. 20 shows a stronger association

Answer 165

Dose-response relationship between exposure and risk of disease The more exposure you have the more likely you are to get the disease. A nurse caring for patients with Avian Influenza compared to a nurse in a calling station answering patient’s questions. LOTS of exposure to the virus more likely to contract the flu than a nurse not exposed to the flu virus. have to get exposure to disease to get the disease

Answer 166

A known biological explanation between exposure and a disease - Is the epidemiological findings consistent with the current biological knowledge? - Rubella causing congenital cataracts Results are consistent with other investigations - Studies conducted in different populations still have similar results - If an association is found it is expected to see the same results within subgroups of the population and in different populations (unless there is a clear reason to expect differently)

Answer 167

Evidence-based medicine is used widely today to make sound medical decisions. Pharmacoepidemiology studies can be used in the drug therapy decision process. Studies are published to show that drugs are safe and effective. Physicians use these studies for treatment guidelines.

Answer 168

The U.S. has among the lowest rates of physician visits and practicing physicians

Answer 169

hospital stays are shortest in the Netherlands and the U.S. The u.S has among the lowest number of hospital beds

Answer 170

the U.S spends more on administrative costs but less on long-term healthcare than other wealthy countries

Answer 171

C case control

Answer 172

B cross-sectional specific pop. at one point in time

Answer 173

B cohort Group is followed through time so prospective cohort

Answer 174

p < 0.001 is statically significant OR 2.5 (95% Cl -2.5 to 5) is not because it includes 1 RR 2.5 (95% Cl 2 to 5) is because it does not include 1 OR 1.5 p = 0.8 is more 0.05, has to be less of it to be statistically significant

Answer 175

illness that is around all the time disease or condition present among a population at all times

Answer 176

disease occurrence among a population that is in excess of what is expected in a given time

Answer 177

a disease or condition that spreads over a wide geographic area and affects an exceptionally large population across regions, may be worldwide.

Answer 178

: Ongoing systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of health data needed for planning, implementation, and evaluation of public health practice

Answer 179

develop over time Risk factor concept: a particular biologic, lifestyle & social conditions are associated with increased risk for specific chronic diseases a disease that you have for a long time

Answer 180

the period between exposure to an infection and the appearance of the first symptoms.

Answer 181

characteristics at the biological, psychological, family, community, or cultural level that precede and are associated with a higher likelihood of negative outcomes.

Answer 182

The epi curve shows the magnitude of the epidemic over time It permits the investigator to distinguish epidemic from endemic disease The shape of the epidemic curve may provide clues about the pattern of spread in the population

Answer 183

Epidemic curve (epi curve) shows progression of an outbreak over time The horizontal axis represents the date when a person became ill, also called the date of onset.

Answer 184

The curve shows where you are in the course of the epidemic - Still on the upswing, on the down slope, or after the epidemic has ended. The curve can be used for evaluation, answering questions like: - How long did it take for the health department to identify a problem? - Are intervention measures working?

Answer 185

case control case: with lung cancer control: without lung cancer

Answer 186

cross sectional

Answer 187

OR 1.83 (95% CI 1.50 to 2.24); p=0.05 - Yes! The 95% CI does not include 1 and the p-value is statistically significant RR 1.66 (95% CI 1.37 to 2.00) - Yes! The 95% CI does not include 1 OR 0.83 (95% CI 0.61 to 1.08) - No! the 95% CI includes the number 1 RR 0.87 (95% CI 0.66 to 1.15) - No! the 95% CI includes the number 1 RR 2.23; p<0.001 - Yes! The p-value is less than 0.05 RR > 1 positive association RR < 1 negative association RR = 1 no association

Answer 188

both deal with a certain group BUT Cross-sectional - measure at ONE time cohort - measure over a certain period of time (like over 5 years The cross-sectional study has an identical structure to the cohort study except that the exposures and outcomes are measured at the same time (i.e. cross-sectionally), whereas in a cohort study outcomes are typically measured after the exposure/s have been measured (i.e. longitudinally).

Answer 189

An expression of the frequency with which an event occurs in a defined population the number of cases in a population

Answer 190

This number should only include people who are potentially susceptible to the disease being studied. the porportion of the incidence (the number of case) of a disease in the population (exposed and nonexposed) that is due to exposure--so the proportion of cases that is due to (or can be attributed to) exposure

Answer 191

the rate of new cases of a disease in a defined population over a defined period Measures the probability that a healthy person in that PAR will develop that disease during that specific time Incidence-Expresses the risk of becoming ill. Must always include a unit of time- such as cases per 10^ n per day, week, month or year

Answer 192

a measure of disease that allows us to determine a person's likelihood of having a disease

Answer 193

the incidence of death per unit of time (usually per year) in a population, which can look at all deaths or a specific cause of death. With COVID, measure how many passed form COVID

Answer 194

Rates change slowly-not useful for epidemiologic studies Useful in assessing social impact of disease-affects planning Prevalence- Estimates the probability of the population being ill at the period of time being studied Prevalence is often expressed as cases per 100 (percentage) or per 1000 population.

Answer 195

Incidence is a measure of the number of new cases of a characteristic that develop in a population in a specified time period (the number of new cases in a pop. so 14 people in a population have COVID) prevalence is the proportion of a population who have a specific characteristic in a given time period, regardless of when they first developed the characteristic. (the proportion of cases in a population so 20% of people in a population have COVID)

Answer 196

You talk to all 200 people in your town on a spring day and find 60 of them have allergy symptoms. The point prevalence of allergies in your town would be 30% or 3 in 10 individuals calculated as: (60 people with allergy symptoms) / (200 people at risk) = 0.3 = 30%

Answer 197

newly identified cases of a disease or condition per population at risk over a specified timeframe. [1] An example of incidence would be 795,000 new strokes in the United States, annually.

Answer 198

the proportion of the incidence (the number of case) of a disease in the population that is due to exposure--so the proportion of cases that is due to (or can be attributed to) exposure how many of the cases are actually due to exposure to the agent? OH OKAY GOTCHA!

U.S healthcare exam 3 Flashcards

(226 cards)