WEEK 11: Visual Imagery, Language Flashcards by Jullana Bareng

TRUE OR FALSE:

Kosslyn’s mental scanning experiment were not challenged by other scientist.

False.

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TRUE OR FALSE:

Evidence of physiological differences between imagery and perception includes differences in areas of the brain activated and brain damage causing dissociations between perception and imagery.

True.

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IDENTIFICATION:

The ability to recreate the sensory world in the absence of physical stimuli; occurs in senses other than vision

Mental imagery

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IDENTIFICATION:

Seeing in the absence of a visual stimulus

Visual imagery

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IDENTIFY THE PROPONENT:

Who proposed that images were one of the 3 basic elements of consciousness along with sensation and feelings?

Wundt

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IDENTIFICATION:

“Thought is impossible without an image” vs “Thinking can occur without images”

Imageless thought debate

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IDENTIFY THE PROPONENT:

Who observed that people who had great difficulty forming visual images were still quite capable of thinking?

Francis Galton

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IDENTIFICATION:

Concrete nouns create images that other words can hang onto

Conceptual peg hypothesis

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IDENTIFICATION:

Measured memory

Example: If presenting the pair boat-hat creates an image of a boat, then presenting the word boat later will bring back the boat image, which provides a number of places on which participants can place the hat in their mind.

Associate learning

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IDENTIFY THE PROPONENT:

Measured memory

Paivio (1963)

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IDENTIFICATION:

Measures the amount of time needed to carry out various cognitive tasks.

Participants are asked to indicate as rapidly as possible whether the two pictures were of the same object or not. The larger the angle, the longer it took to make a decision. It showed that participants are mentally rotating one of the views to see whether it matched the other one.

Mental chronometry / Mental rotation

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IDENTIFY THE PROPONENTS:

Mental chronometry / Mental rotation

Shepard and Metzler (1971)

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IDENTIFICATION:

Spatial correspondence between imagery and perception

Mental scanning

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IDENTIFY THE PROPONENT:

Mental scanning

Supported by a number of experiments where participants are asked to create mental images and then scan them in their minds. He proposed that as participants scanned the image in their mind, they may have encountered other interesting parts, and such distractions may have increased their reaction time.

Stephen Kosslyn

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IDENTIFICATION:

A debate about whether imagery is based on spatial mechanisms such as those involved in perception, or on mechanisms related to language, called “propositional mechanisms”.

Imagery debate

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IDENTIFY THE PROPONENT:

Imagery debate

Pylyshyn (1973)

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IDENTIFICATION:

A representation in which different parts of an image can be described as corresponding to specific locations in space.

Spatial representation

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IDENTIFICATION:

Pylyshyn argued that just because we experience imagery as spatial, doesn’t mean that the underlying representation is also spatial, such is ____________________, something that accompanies the real mechanism but is not actually part of the mechanism itself.

Epiphenomenon

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IDENTIFICATION:

One in which relationships can be represented by abstract symbols, such as an equation or a statement.

Propositional representation

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IDENTIFICATION:

Representations that are like realistic pictures of an object

Example: Kosslyn’s boat

Depictive representations

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IDENTIFICATION:

States that participants unconsciously use knowledge about the world in making their judgement.

Tacit knowledge explanation

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IDENTIFY THE PROPONENTS:

Flashed dot experiment

Finke and Pinker (1982)

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IDENTIFICATION:

An experiment wherein unfamiliar stimuli that participants see only for a fraction of a second is used.

First, they briefly presented a four-dot display, and after a two-second delay, presented an arrow. The task was to indicate whether the arrow was pointing to any of the dots they had just seen.

THE RESULT: The participants wouldn’t have had the time to memorize the distances between the arrow and the dot before making their judgements; it is unlikely that they used tacit knowledge about how long it should take to get from one point to another.

Flashed dot experiment

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IDENTIFICATION:

Participants were asked to imagine two animals and to imagine that they were standing close enough to the larger animal that it filled most of the visual field. “Does the rabbit have whiskers?”

Repeated procedure – participants were asked next to imagine a rabbit and a fly next to each other. Results showed that participants answered questions about the rabbit more rapidly when it filled more of the visual field, providing evidence that images in our mind are spatial, just like in perception.

Behavioral Experiments: Comparing Imagery and Perception Size in the Visual Field

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**IDENTIFY THE PROPONENT:** Behavioral Experiments: Comparing Imagery and Perception Size in the Visual Field

Kosslyn (1978)

**IDENTIFICATION:** Parallels between imagery and perception were showed in these experiments:

- Reaction time experiment - Interaction between perception and imagery - Experiment in which participants imagined H or T

**IDENTIFY THE PROPONENT:** Reaction time experiment

Broggin et al. (2012)

**IDENTIFY THE PROPONENT:** Interaction between perception and imagery

Perky (1910)

**IDENTIFY THE PROPONENT:** Experiment in which participants imagined H or T

Farah (1985)

**IDENTIFY THE EXPERIMENT METHOD:** Recording from a single neuron

Imagery neurons

**IDENTIFY THE EXPERIMENT METHOD:** Demonstrating overlapping activation on perception and imagery

Brain imaging

**IDENTIFY THE EXPERIMENT METHOD:** Removal of visual cortex affects image size; unilateral neglect

Neuropsychological case studies

**IDENTIFICATION:** Physiological evidence for differences between imagery and perception

- Differences in the areas of the brain - Brain damage causing dissociations between perception and imagery

**TRUE OR FALSE:** Imagery is closely related to perception and shares **all** mechanisms.

**False.** Imagery shares some but *not all* mechanisms.

**IDENTIFICATION:** Eye movements during imagery resemble those during perception. It facilitates **recall** by providing both ____________ (scaffolding) and _____________ (hotspots) information.

Spatial; content

**TRUE OR FALSE:** Imagery has powerful effects on emotion. This close connection could help in using imagery to modify post-trauma memories.

True.

**IDENTIFICATION:** A system of communication that uses sounds or symbols that enable us to our express feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences. It is different from animal communication in its creativity, hierarchical structure, governing rules, and universality.

Language

**IDENTIFICATION:** One of the significant contributions to cognitive revolution

Chomsky's critique of Skinner's behavioristic analysis of language

**IDENTIFY THE PROPONENTS:** The modern scientific study of language traces it beginnings to the 1800s when _____ _____ (_____) and _____ _________ (_____) identifies areas in the **frontal and temporal lobes** that are involved in different aspects of language.

Paul Broca (1861) and Carl Wernicke (1874)

**IDENTIFICATION:** In 1957, __ _________, the *main proponent of behaviorism*, published a book called ________ __________ in which he proposed that language is **learned through reinforcement**.

BF Skinner; Verbal Behavior

**IDENTIFICATION:** Refers to how the structure of language consists of a series of small components that can be combined to form larger units Example: words -> phrase -> sentences -> story

Hierarchical

**IDENTIFICATION:** Refers to how the components of language can be arranged in certain ways Example: "What is my cat saying?" is permissible in English, but not in other ways, such as "Cat my saying is what?" which is not a proper English sentence.

Governed by rules

**IDENTIFY THE PROPONENT:** People's need to communicate is so powerful that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where nobody speaks or uses sign language, they invent a sign language themselves.

Goldin-Meadow (1982)

**TRUE OR FALSE:** All humans with normal capacities develop a language and learn to follow its complex rules, even though they are usually *not aware* of these rules.

True.

**TRUE OR FALSE:** Language is universal across cultures. There are more than 5,000 different languages and there isn't a single culture without language.

True.

**TRUE OR FALSE:** Language is not a contested political issue in certain multilingual countries.

False. It is.

**IDENTIFICATION:** Language development is similar across cultures. Children generally begin **babbling** at about __ months, a few **meaningful words** appear by their _______ birthday, and the first **multiword utterances** occur at about age ___.

- 7 months - First birthday - Age two

**IDENTIFICATION:** Language development in children is similar across cultures.

Levelt (2001)

**TRUE OR FALSE:** We can describe language as being unique but the same. Unique in that they use different words and sounds but are the same in that all languages have words that serve the functions of nouns and verbs and all languages include a system to make things negative to ask questions, and to refer to the past and present.

True.

**IDENTIFICATION:** The field concerned with the psychological study of language

Psycholinguistics

**IDENTIFICATION:** What is the goal of psycholinguistics?

To discover the psychological processes by which humans acquire and process language

**IDENTIFICATION | 4 MAJOR CONCERNS OF PSYCHOLINGUISTICS:** How do people *understand spoken and written language*? This includes how people process language sounds; how they understand words, sentences, and stories expressed in writing, speech, or sign language; and how people have conversations with one another.

Comprehension

**IDENTIFICATION | 4 MAJOR CONCERNS OF PSYCHOLINGUISTICS:** How do people *produce language*? This includes the physical processes of speech production and the mental processes that occur as a person creates speech.

Speech production

**IDENTIFICATION | 4 MAJOR CONCERNS OF PSYCHOLINGUISTICS:** How is language *represented in the mind and in the brain*? This includes how people group words together into phrases and make connections between different parts of a story, as well as how these processes are related to the activation of the brain.

Representation

**IDENTIFICATION | 4 MAJOR CONCERNS OF PSYCHOLINGUISTICS:** How do people *learn language*? This includes not only how children learn language but also how people learn additional languages, either as children or later in life.

Acquisition

**IDENTIFICATION:** A person's knowledge of what words mean, how they sound, and how they are used in relation to other words

Lexicon

**IDENTIFICATION:** Estimates of how many words people know

9,800 - 50,000 words

**IDENTIFICATION:** Brysbaert et al. (2016) -- At age 20, native English speakers know about _________ words on average. By the age of 60, this number has risen to __________. This also suggests that once we know a word, we will probably not forget it.

42,000; 48,200

**IDENTIFICATION:** One of the smallest units of language and building blocks of words referring to **sound**; not the same as letters.

Phonemes

**IDENTIFICATION:** One of the smallest units of language and building blocks of words referring to **meaning**.

Morphemes

**IDENTIFICATION:** The perceptual phenomenon where under certain conditions, sounds actually *missing* from a speech signal can be **filled in by the brain** and clearly heard. Influenced by the meaning of the worlds that follow the missing phoneme.

Phonemic restoration effect

**IDENTIFICATION:** The ability to perceive individual words even though there are often no pauses between words in the sound, or the process of **perceiving individual words in the continuous flow** of the speech signal. It is aided by *knowing the meaning of words* and *being aware of the context* in which these words occur; listeners also use other information to achieve this. It is a major part of learning a different language.

Speech segmentation

**IDENTIFICATION:** This refers to the finding that letters are **easier to recognize when they are contained in a word** than when they appear *alone* or are contained in a *non-word*. Letters in words are not processed one by one; each letter is affected *by the context within which it appears*.

Word superiority effect

**IDENTIFICATION:** This refers to the fact that we respond more rapidly to **high-frequency words** like "home" than to low-frequency words like "hike". Words vary in the frequency with which they are used in a particular language (e.g., pretty vs demure) and this affects ease of understanding.

Work frequency effect

**IDENTIFICATION:** The ability to access meaning is not only affected by word frequency but also by the fact that some words **have more than one meaning**. This refers to the existence of **multiple word meanings**. Many words have more than one meaning. For words with *biased dominance*, one meaning is more likely. For words with *balanced dominance*, meanings are equally likely.

Lexical ambiguity

**IDENTIFICATION:** The meanings of words and sentences

Semantics

**IDENTIFICATION:** Specifies the rules for combining words into sentences

Syntax

**IDENTIFICATION:** Area in the *frontal lobe* involved in **language production** (syntax)

Broca's area

**IDENTIFICATION:** Area in the *temporal lobe* involved in **language comprehension** (semantics)

Wernicke's area

**IDENTIFICATION:** Speech problem due to damage on the frontal lobe

Broca's aphasia

**IDENTIFICATION:** Fluency and correct grammar are present but there is a tendency to be incoherent

Wernicke's aphasia

**IDENTIFICATION:** The process by which words in a sentence are grouped into phrases and is a determinant of the meaning of a sentence

Parsing

**IDENTIFICATION:** Emphasizes how syntactic principles such as late closure determine how a sentence is parsed

Syntax-first parsing

**IDENTIFICATION:** States that semantics, syntax, and other factors operate simultaneously to determine parsing

Interactionist approach

**IDENTIFICATION:** Enables us to understand stories. It is largely determined by inference.

Coherence

**IDENTIFICATION:** Determining what the text means by using our knowledge to go beyond the information provided by the text

Inferences

**IDENTIFICATION | 3 TYPES OF INFERENCES:** Connecting an object or person in one sentence to an object or person in another sentence

Anaphoric inference

**IDENTIFICATION | 3 TYPES OF INFERENCES:** Inferences about tools or methods

Instrument inference

**IDENTIFICATION | 3 TYPES OF INFERENCES:** Events described in one clause or sentence were caused by events that occurred in a previous sentence

Casual inference

**IDENTIFICATION:** People represent the situation in a story in terms of the people, objects, locations, and events that are being described in the story. It is a mental representation. Example: A story that involves movement will result in the simulation of this movement as the person is comprehending the story.

Situation model approach

**IDENTIFICATION | SPEECH EFFECTS:** DESCRIPTION: Speaker should provide both **given and new** information in a sentence. CONCLUSION: Providing given information facilitates comprehension.

Given-new contract

**IDENTIFICATION | SPEECH EFFECTS:** DESCRIPTION: Mutually recognized **common knowledge**. CONCLUSION: Speakers tailor information to the listener's level of knowledge. People work together to achieve common ground in a conversation.

Common ground

**IDENTIFICATION | SPEECH EFFECTS:** DESCRIPTION: Similar grammatical constructions in sentences during conversations. CONCLUSION: A person's speech patterns are influenced by the grammatical constructions used by the other person in a conversation.

Syntactic coordination