Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Anatomy & Physiology > Chapter 24 > Flashcards

Chapter 24 Flashcards

1
Q

Carbohydrate uses in the body

A

Glucose - fuel used by cells to make ATP
Neurons and RBCs - entirely on glucose
Excess converted to glycogen or fat
Fructose and galactose converted to glucose by liver before circulation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Lipids

A

Triglycerides (neutral fats)
Saturated fats in meat, dairy foods, and tropical oils; trans fats
Unsaturated fats in seeds, nuts, olive oil, and most vegetable oils
Cholesterol in egg yolk, meats, organ meats, shellfish, milk
Liver makes ~85% cholesterol

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Uses of Lipids in the Body

A

Help absorb fat-soluble vitamins
Fuel of hepatocytes, skeletal muscle
Myelin sheaths, membranes
Protection, insulation, fuel storage
Prostaglandins – smooth muscle contraction, BP control, inflammation
Cholesterol stabilizes membranes; precursor of bile salts, steroid hormones

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What’s a complete Protein

A

Contain All 20 amino acids (eggs, milk, meats, soybeans)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Uses of protein in the body

A 
Structural materials
Keratin (skin); collagen and elastin (connective tissue); muscle proteins
Functional molecules
Enzymes, some hormones
Amino acids can be burned for energy
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

All-or-none rule

A

All amino acids needed must be present for protein synthesis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Nitrogen balance

A

Rate of protein synthesis equals rate of breakdown
Positive nitrogen balance - synthesis exceeds breakdown (normal in children, pregnant women, tissue repair)
Negative nitrogen balance - breakdown exceeds synthesis (stress, burns, infection, injury, poor diet, starvation)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Hormonal controls

A 
Anabolic hormones (GH, sex hormones) accelerate protein synthesis and growth
Adrenal glucocorticoids (released during stress)  protein breakdown; conversion of amino acids to glucose
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Anabolism

A

synthesis of large molecules from small ones

Ex. Amino acids proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Catabolism

A

hydrolysis of complex structures to simpler ones

Ex. Proteins amino acids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Cellular respiration

A

Catabolism of food fuels capture of energy (ATP)
Enzymes shift high-energy phosphate groups of ATP to other molecules (phosphorylation) which are activated to perform cellular functions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Oxidation

A

Loss of Hydrogen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Reduction

A

Gain of Hydrogen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Equation for oxidation of glucose

A

C6 H12 06 + 6O2 = 6Co2 + 6H2O + ATP

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Coenzymes

A

act as electron acceptors

NAD+ (H) [has electrons] & FAD

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Substrate-level phosphorylation

A

High energy phosphate group directly transferred to ADP, twice in glycolysis, once in Krebs Cycle.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Oxidative Phosphorylation

A

Makes most of the ATP with Chemiosmotic pressure, with a buildup of proton concentration to build a gradient.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Glucose enters cell by

A

Facilitated Diffusion and is phosphorylated to Glucose-6-phosphate

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

How is glucose trapped in cell?

A

Most cells can’t reverse the action of glucose entering the cells, also the concentration gradient of glucose is always higher outside of cell so doesn’t want to leave.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What cells can reverse the entering of glucose?

A

Intestine, kidney, liver cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Step 1: Glycolysis

A

Occurs in cytosol (anaerobic)
Starts with Glucose
Ends with 2 pyruvic acid, 2 NADH+H, net 2 ATP.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Sugar Activation

A

Phosphorylation activates glucose converted to fructose-1 & 6-bisphosphate

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Sugar Cleavage

A

6-bisphosphate from Sugar activation is cleaved into 2 pieces

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Sugar Oxidation

A

Removal of Hydrogen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Step after Glycolysis

A

Anaerobic - NADH gives H+ back to pyruvic acid reducing it to lactic acid

Aerobic - Krebs Cycle in Mitochondria

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Transitional Phase

A

Convert each pyruvic acid to acetyl CoA in 3 steps.

  1. A carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate releasing Co2.
  2. NAD+ is reduced to NADH - oxidation reaction
  3. An acetyl group is transferred to coenzyme and resulting to Acetyl CoA
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Krebs Cycle (citric acid cycle)

A

Occurs in mitochondria

Results in 8NADH +H+, 2 FADH2, 6Co2, 2 ATP

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Electron Transport Chain

A

Occurs in folds of mitochondria
Complexes alternately reduce and oxidize as pick up and pass electrons to oxygen and form H2O.
Hydrogen ion pumped to intermembrane space by respiratory enzymes complexes I, III & IV creates electrochemical proton gradient (change in pH) This is called oxidative phosphorylation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Chemiosmosis

A

uses the proton gradient created by respiratory enzyme complexes I, III, IV, to synthesize ATP by having protons diffuse back through the matrix via a ATP synthase that creates and electrical current which creates the ATP

30
Q

Glycogenesis

A

Glycogen formation via glycogen synthase when glucose supplies exceed need for ATP synthesis
Mostly in liver and skeletal muscle

31
Q

Glycogenolysis

A

Glycogen breakdown via glycogen phosphorylase in response to low blood glucose
Only by hepatocytes, some kidney and intestinal cells

32
Q

Carbo loading

A

Carbohydrate-rich diet for 3-4 days; decreased activity - muscles store more glycogen - improved endurance

33
Q

Gluconeogenesis

A

Glucose formed in liver from glycerol and amino acids when blood glucose levels drop
Protects nervous system and against damaging effects of hypoglycemia

34
Q

Why is glucose easily converted to Fat?

A

Because once it is converted to Acetyl CoA, it can then build up and if too many than can go to fat stores instead of back to glucose.

35
Q

Lipid Metabolism

A

Greater energy yield than from glucose or protein catabolism
Most products of fat digestion transported in lymph as chylomicrons
Hydrolyzed by endothelial enzymes into fatty acids and glycerol

36
Q

Lipogenesis

A

Glucose easily converted to fat because acetyl CoA is
Intermediate in glucose catabolism
Starting point for fatty acid synthesis

37
Q

Lipolysis

A

Stored fat glycerol, fatty acids for fuel
Oxaloacetic acid necessary for complete oxidation of fat but converted to glucose if carbohydrates deficient
Acetyl CoA is then converted by in liver to ketone bodies

38
Q

Ketosis

A 
Accumulation of ketones in blood 
Ketones acidic - metabolic acidosis
Breath smells fruity 
Rapid breath to release CO2, raise pH
Common in starvation, dieting, diabetes 
Ketone bodies excreted in urine
39
Q

Protein Metabolism

A

• Proteins deteriorate, so continually broken down and replaced
•Amino acids recycled
– new proteins
• Protein not stored in body
–When dietary protein in excess, amino
acids are oxidized for energy or
Converted to fat for storage

40
Q

3 steps of Oxidation of Amino Acids

A

Transamination - an amine group is switched from amino acid to Keto Acid.
Oxidative Deamination - Amine group of glutamic Acid is removed as ammonia and combined w/ Co2 to form Urea - urine
Keto Acid Modification - The keto acid formed during transamination are altered so they can easily enter the krebs cycle pathways.

41
Q

Absorptive State

A

Just Fed, anabolism exceeds catabolism

42
Q

Carbohydrates during Absorptive State

A

Glucose major fuel, glucose converted to glycogen or fat. synthesized fat & protein released to blood for storage by adipose as VLDL’s.

43
Q

Triglycerides during Absorptive State

A

Lipoprotein lipase catalyze lipids of chylomicrons in muscle and fat tissue. Most glycerol and fatty acids converted to triglycerides for storage. Triglycerides used by adipose tissue, liver, skeletal, cardiac muscle as energy.

44
Q

Amino Acids during Absorptive State

A

To many - deaminate and used as ATP synthesis or stored fat. Aminos used in protein synthesis.

45
Q

What is happening Postabsorptive State

A

Under fed, catabolism of fat glycogen, and proteins exceeds anabolism. GOAL: maintain blood glucose, promotes use of fats for energy, save glucose for organs that need it most.

46
Q

Adipose tissue

A

It is innervated by sympathetic nervous system and supplies glucose if blood levels low.

47
Q

What do lipoproteins do?

A

Transport water - insoluble cholesterol and triglycerides in blood. Regulate lipid entry/exit at target cells.

48
Q

Roles of HDLs (GOOD)

A

Transport excessive cholesterol protein from peripheral tissues to liver to be broken down and secreted into bile and provide cholesterol to steroid-producing organs.

49
Q

Roles of LDLs

A

Transport cholesterol to tissues for membrane storage or hormone synthesis

50
Q

Roles of VLDLs

A

Transport triglycerides from liver to peripheral tissues (mostly adipose)

51
Q

Saturated Fatty Acids

A

Stimulate liver synthesis of cholesterol, inhibit cholesterol excretion from body. No double bonded carbons, solid at room temperature.

52
Q

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

A

Enhanced excretion of cholesterol enhancing cholesterol excretion to bile.

53
Q

What do Omega-3-Fatty Acids do?

A

Lower saturated fats and cholesterol, make platelets less sticky, help prevent spontaneous clotting, antiarrhythmic effects on heart, lower blood pressure.

54
Q

Long term regulators of food intake

A

Insulin & Leptin

55
Q

Leptin

A

Hormone secreted by fat cells in response to increased body fat mass. Indicator of energy stores. Rising the level of leptin has led to weight loss (idea)

56
Q

Basal Metabolic Rate

A

The energy need to perform essential activities.
Recorded as kilocalories per square meter of body surface per hour (kcal/m2/h)
BMR increases as ratio of body surface area to volume increases
Decreases with age
Males have higher BMR
Increases with temperature or stress
Thyroxine increases oxygen consumption, cellular respiration, and BMR
Physical training has little effect on BMR

57
Q

Short Term regulators of food intake

A

• Neural signals from GI tract
High protein content of meal increases
and prolongs afferent vagal signals
Distension sends signals along vagus
nerve that suppress hunger center
- Rising blood glucose
- Elevated blood amino acid levels
- Blood levels of fatty acids

58
Q

Total metabolic rate (TMR)

A

Rate of kilocalorie consumption to fuel all ongoing activities
Increases with skeletal muscle activity and food ingestion (food-induced thermogenesis)

59
Q

Normal body temperature

A 
37C (98.6F)
Optimal enzyme activity 
Increased temperature denatures proteins and depresses neurons	
Children <5  convulsions 41C(106F)
~43C (109F) - limit for life
60
Q

Mechanism of Heat Transfer

A

Evaporation - heat loss from water to body
Radiation - loss of heat by infrared rays
Conduction - transfer by direct contact
Convection - transfer of heat to air (wind blowing)

61
Q

Insensible Heat Loss

A

Accompanies insensible water loss from lungs, oral mucosa, and skin

62
Q

Sensible Heat Loss

A

When body temp rises and sweating increases, water evaporates

63
Q

Related to Body temp, the Hypothalamus receives afferent input from what?

A 
Peripheral thermoreceptors in shell (skin)
Central thermoreceptors (some in HT) initiates appropriate heat-loss and heat-promoting activities.
64
Q

Heat-promoting mechanisms

A

Increase metabolic rate via Epinephrine and Norepinephrine.
Chemical thermogenesis
Enhanced thyroxine release
Brown adipose tissue.

65
Q

Hyperthermia

A

Elevated body temp, tell HT to begin heat stroke

66
Q

Heat Exhaustion

A

Heat related collapse after hard exercise dehydration and low BP. Heat-loss mechanisms still functional, may turn to heat stroke.

67
Q

Hypothermia

A

Low body temp, shivering stops

can progress to coma and death at 21˚ c

68
Q

Controlled Hyperthermia

A

Fever

69
Q

What causes the symptoms of fever

A

Injured cells start releasing chemicals

70
Q

How does fever affect they hypothalamus

A

Resets the internal thermostat higher, temperature rises.

71
Q

PKU

A

Phenylketonuria - cells cannot use the amino acid phenylalanine. Neurotoxins in blood, brain damage, retardation.

Anatomy & Physiology (26 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions