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A&P I Lecture and Lab > A&PI Ch. 21&22 Lymphatic and Immune Systems > Flashcards

A&PI Ch. 21&22 Lymphatic and Immune Systems Flashcards

1
Q

What are the components of the Lymphatic System?

A
  • collection of organs, capillaries, vessels, and tissues
  • contains fluid (lymph) that circulates through the vessels
  • contains both lymph nodes and nodules
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2
Q

What are the functions of the Lymphatic System?

A
  • returns excess interstital fluid to the venous system
  • absorbs fats from the digestive tract and returns them to the venous system for processing by the liver
  • produces and matures many immune cells
  • filters microorganisms and foreign substances from lymph and blood
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3
Q

What is lymph?

A
  • fluid that leaves blood capillaries and is not reabsorbed by them
  • this interstitial fluid moves into lymphatic capillaries where it is then called lymph
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4
Q

What are the components of lymph?

A
  • water, dissolved solutes, and small amount of protein
  • sometimes cell debris, pathogens, or cancer cells
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5
Q

What do lymphatic vessels do?

A

-begin as fenestrated capillaries, composed of a single layer of endothelium
-lymph is transported through progressively bigger vessels, through lymph nodes, until it reaches the vena cava
-larger lymphatic vessels contain one-way valves and smooth muscle

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6
Q

Lymphatic Trunks are fed by _________ _________.

A

lymphatic vessels

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7
Q

Jugular trunks drain lymph from _______ and ______.

A

head, neck

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8
Q

Subclavian trunks drain ______ ______, _______, and _________ ________ _______.

A

upper limbs, breasts, and superficial thoracic wall

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9
Q

____________ __________ drain deep thoracic structures.

A

Bronchomediastinal trunks

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10
Q

Intestinal trunks drain most ________ _________.

A

abdominal structures

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11
Q

________ _______ drain lower limbs, abdominopelvic wall, and pelvic organs.

A

Lumbar Trunks

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12
Q

Lymphatic ducts are fed by ________ ________.

A

lymphatic trunks

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13
Q

Lymphatic Ducts

A

-bring lymph to venous blood circulation
-two types: right lymphatic ducts and thoracic duct

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14
Q

Right Lymphatic Duct

A

-near right clavicle
-drains right upper quadrant of the body
-delivers lymph to junction of left subclavian and right internal jugular veins

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15
Q

Thoracic Duct

A

-largest lymphatic vessel
-runs from diaphragm to junction of left subclavian and left jugular veins
-drains lymph from the left side of the head and neck, left upper limb, left side of the thorax, abdomen, and both lower limbs

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16
Q

Primary Lymphoid Structures

A

-Involved in the formation and maturation of lymphocytes
-Red bone marrow and thymus

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17
Q

Secondary Lymphoid Structures

A

-house lymphocytes and other immune cells
-sites of immune response initiation
-include lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, and lymphatic nodules
-include MALT (Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue)

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18
Q

Bone Marrow is the site of ____________.

A

leukopoiesis

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19
Q

Leukopoiesis

A

-begins in the bone marrow
– includes the creation of lymphocytes (B&T)
-maturation may occur in the bone marrow, or continue in another organ, depending on the cell type
-T-lymphocytes migrate to thymus to complete maturation

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20
Q

Tonsils

A

-lymphatic tissue and organ
-large group of lymphatic nodules in nasopharynx and oral cavity
-provide protection against bacteria and other harmful material
-form a ring around the border between the oral cavity and the pharynx

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21
Q

Tonsil Groups

A
  • Palantine (the “tonsils”)
  • Pharyngeal (the “adenoids”)
  • Lingual
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22
Q

The Thymus

A

-lymphatic tissue and organ
-flat, bi-lobed organ located in superior mediastinum above heart
-the thymus quickly starts to atrophy (shrivel) in life after puberty, possibly much earlier
-each lobe is comprised of lobules held together by areolar connective tissue
-site of T cell maturation

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23
Q

What are Lymph Nodes?

A

follicles consisting of lymphatic and non-lymphatic cells surrounded by a network of lymphatic capillaries

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24
Q

Lymph Nodes

A

-each is supplied by afferent (more numerous) lymphatic vessels and drained by efferent lymphatic vessels
-Resident Cells include B and T lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, and reticular cells

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25
Q

What do B and T cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and reticular cells do in the lymph nodes?

A

-lymph is monitored for the presence of foreign material
-macrophages remove foreign debris from lymph
-lymphocytes may initiate an immune response (can cause enlarged nodes that can be palpated in the neck and axilla
-lymph exits the node through efferent vessels that may then pass to the neighboring lymph node

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26
Q

True or False? B cell maturation is a feature of the Thymus.

A

FALSE; T cell maturation is a feature of the Thymus

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27
Q

The Spleen

A

-lymphatic tissue and organ
-filters the blood, stores erythrocytes, removes defective erythrocytes/ platelets, recycles iron
-contains red pulp and white pulp

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28
Q

White Pulp

A

lymphocytes and macrophages

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29
Q

Red Pulp

A

addition of erythrocytes and platelets

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30
Q

Innate Immunity

A

provided by multiple components that protect against a wide array of substances

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31
Q

What does Innate Immunity include?

A

-skin and mucosal membranes (prevent entry)
-nonspecific internal defenses

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32
Q

Nonspecific internal defenses (part of Innate Immunity)

A

-most immune cells (e.g. macrophages, NK cells)
-chemicals (e.g. interferon, complement)
-physiologic responses (e.g. inflammation, fever)

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33
Q

Adaptive Immunity

A

provided by lymphocytes that are activated to replicate and respond when replicated by a specific antigen

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34
Q

What does adaptive immunity include?

A
  • T-lymphocytes (cell-mediated immunity)
  • B-lymphocytes (antibody-mediated immunity)
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35
Q

B-lymphocytes (antibody-mediated immunity)

A

plasma cells (synthesize and release antibodies)

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36
Q

How do innate and adaptive immunity differ?

A
  • cells involved
  • specificity of cell response
  • mechanisms of eliminating harmful substances
    -amount of time for response
    -
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37
Q

How do you to compare innate and adaptive immunity?

A

work together in body defenses

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38
Q

Innate Immunity Specifics

A
  • present at birth
  • protects against variety of different substances (nonspecific: neds no prior exposure to the substance)
  • responds immediately to potentially harmful agents
  • includes barriers of skin and mucosal membranes, nonspecific cellular and molecular internal defenses
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39
Q

Adaptive Immunity Specifics

A
  • acquired/ specific immunity
    -response to antigen involves specific T- and B-lymphocytes
    – a particular cell responds to one specific foreign substance but not another
    -takes several days to be effective
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40
Q

Innate Immunity External physical barriers

A
  • Skin
  • Mucosal Membranes
  • Tears
  • Saliva
  • Stomach Acid
  • Sebum
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41
Q

Chemicals, proteins, and cells Internal physical barriers

A
  • Histamine
  • Complement
  • Neutrophils
  • Eosinophils
  • Basophils
  • NK cells
  • Macrophages
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42
Q

Stereotype response

A

fever and inflammation

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43
Q

What are the features of the skin?

A
  • first line of defense against foreign threats
    -Epidermis: waterproof, chemically resistance to bacterial enzymes
    -Glands: maintain surface pH of 3-5, blocking the growth of most microorganisms
    -mucosal membranes contain anti-pathologic substances (lysozymes)
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44
Q

Second Line of Defense: nonspecific internal defenses

A

-if pathogens pass the first line of defense, the second line of defense (nonspecific internal defenses) is initiated

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45
Q

Nonspecific Internal Defenses

A
  • selected immune cells
  • antimicrobial proteins
  • inflammation
  • fever
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46
Q

What are the 3 phagocytic cells?

A
  • neutrophils
  • macrophages
  • dendritic cells
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47
Q

What do phagocytic cells do?

A

-non-specific internal defenses
-engulf unwanted substances by phagocytosis

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48
Q

Neutrophils and Macrophages function

A

destroy engulfed particles

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49
Q

Neutrophils

A

-most numerous leukocyte
-first responder to site of injury
-act as weaker macrophages
-intake vesicle fuses with lysosome forming phagolysosome
-digestive enzymes break down the unwanted substances
-degraded residue is released by exocytosis

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50
Q

Dendritic Cells

A

-destroy particles
-present fragments
-antigens are presented on dendritic cell surface to T-lymphocytes
-necessary for initiating adaptive immunity

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51
Q

Macrophages

A

also perform antigen presentation

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52
Q

What are the two proinflammatory cells?

A
  • basophils
  • mast cells
  • eicosanoids
    -non-specific internal defenses
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53
Q

Basophils and Mast Cells

A

-promote inflammation

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54
Q

Basophils

A
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55
Q

Mast Cells

A

-reside in connective tissue, mucosa, and internal organs
-release granules containing chemicals

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56
Q

Granules that contain chemicals

A

-increase movement of fluid from blood to injured tissue
-serve as chemotaxis chemicals (attract immune cells)
-Histamine increases vasodilation and capillary permeability
-Heparin acts as an anticoagulant

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57
Q

Eicosanoids

A

-released from their plasma membrane
-also increase inflammation

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58
Q

What is the Apoptosis inducing cell?

A

NK (Natural Killer) cells

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59
Q

NK (Natural Killer) Cells

A

-destroy unhealthy/unwanted cells
-form in bine marrow
-circulate in blood
-accumulate in secondary lymphoid structures
–perform immune surveillance- patrol the body, detect unhealthy cells
-destroy virus-infected cells, bacteria-infected cells, tumor cells, cells of transplanted tissue
-kill by releasing cytotoxic chemicals

60
Q

What are the two cytotoxic chemicals?

A
  • Perforin: creates a transmembrane pore in unwanted cell
  • Granzymes: enter pore and cause apoptosis of cell
61
Q

Apoptosis

A

cell death that causes shriveling rather than lysis

62
Q

Eosinophils

A

-non-specific internal defenses
-attack multicellular parasites
-degranulate, release enzymes and other toxic substances
–can release proteins that form transmembrane pores in parasite’s cells
-participate in immune responses of allergy and asthma
-cells of innate immune system recognize microbes as foreign because of receptors
–pattern recognition receptors (toll-like receptors) on cell surface bind to patterns on microbe surface

63
Q

Antimicrobial Proteins

A

-nonspecific internal defenses
-molecules that function against microbes

64
Q

Interferons

A

-nonspecific internal defenses
-a class of cytokines that nonspepcifically interferes with spread of intracellular pathogens (for example, viruses, intracellular bacteria)

65
Q

Types of Interferons

A

IFN-alpha and IFN-beta: produced by leukocytes and virus-infected cells
-bind to neighboring cells and prevent their infection
–trigger synthesis of enzymes that destroy viral nucleic acids, inhibit synthesis of viral proteins
-stimulate NK cells to destroy virus-infected cells

66
Q

Types of Interferons (2)

A

IFN-gamma: produced by T-lymphocytes and NK cells
-stimulates macrophages to destroy virus-infected cells

67
Q

__________ affect both the innate and adaptive immune systems.

A

Cytokines

68
Q

Cytokines

A
  • small proteins that regulate immune activity
  • act in an autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine manner
  • produced by a broad range of immune cells
  • overproduction of cytokines can lead to sickness and death
69
Q

Complement System

A
  • proteins involved in innate immunity
  • group of over 30 plasma proteins
  • work along with (“complement”) antibodies
  • identified with letter “C” and number (for example, C2)
  • synthesized by liver, continuously released in inactive form
    – activation occurs by enzyme cascade
  • complement activation follows pathogen entry
70
Q

Classical Pathway

A

antibody attaches to foreign substance, then complement binds to antibody

71
Q

Alternative Pathway

A

complement binds to polysaccharides of bacterial or fungal cell wall

72
Q

Lectin Pathway

A

initiated when mannose-binding lectin binds to mannose (sugar (rare for humans))

73
Q

Non-specific internal defenses: Inflammation

A

-an immediate response to ward off unwanted substances
-local, nonspecific response of vascularized tissue to injury, infection
-major response of innate immunity

74
Q

Events of inflammation

A

-injured tissue, basophils, mast cells, and infectious organisms release chemicals that initiate response
-released chemicals cause vascular changes
-recruitment of leukocytes

75
Q

Vascular changes

A

-vasodilation
-increased capillary permeability
–increased endothelial expression of molecules for..
-leukocyte adhesion
–recruitment of leukocytes

76
Q

Recruitment of Leukocytes

A

-Diapedesis
-Chemotaxis

77
Q

Diapedesis

A

cells escape blood vessel walls

78
Q

Chemotaxis

A

leukocytes migrate toward chemicals released from damaged, dead, or pathogenic cells

79
Q

Effects of Inflammation

A
  • fluid (exudate) moves from blood to injured or infected area
    – fluid, protein, immune cells to eliminate pathogens, promote healing
    – vasodilation brings more blood to that area
    – contraction of vessel endothelial cells opens grasp between them, increasing capillary permeability
    – loss of plasma proteins decreases capillary osmotic pressure, thus decreasing fluid reabsorbtion into blood
    – extra fluid is taken up by lymphatic capillaries in the area (“washing”)
    —carries away debris and allows lymph node monitoring of its contents
  • Within 72 hours, inflammatory response slows
    – macrophages eat bacteria, damaged host cells, dying neutrophils
    – tissue repair begins as fibroblasts form new connective tissue
80
Q

Cardinal signs of inflammation

A
  • redness from increased blood flow
  • heat from increased blood flow and increased metabolic activity within the area
  • swelling from increase in fluid loss from capillaries
    -pain from stimulation of pain receptors (nociceptors)
    – due to compression (extra fluid) and chemical irritants (kinins, prostaglandins, microbial secretions)
  • loss of function from pain and swelling in severe cases
    – duration of acute inflammation: about 8 to 10 days
  • Chronic inflammation has detrimental effects (cancer)
81
Q

Fever

A
  • also called pyrexia
  • abnormal body temperature elevation
    –1 degree more than the normal (37 degrees C)
    –results from release of pyrogens (ex. IL-1) from immune cells or infectious agents
82
Q

Events of Fever

A
  • pyrogens circulate through blood and target the hypothalamus
    -in response, hypothalamus releases prostaglandins
    -hypothalmus raises the temperature set point, leading to fever
83
Q

What are the benefits of fever?

A

-it inhibits the production of bacteria and viruses
-promotes interferon activity
-stimulates capillary permeability
-increases activity of adaptive immunity
-accelerates tissue repair

84
Q

What are the risks of a high fever?

A

-there are changes in the metabolic pathways and denaturation of proteins which causes irreversible brain damage at body temperature greater than 106 degrees F
-death is likely if body temperature is greater than 108 degrees F (109 degrees F)

85
Q

What constitutes as a high-grade fever?

A

103-104 degrees F

86
Q

What constitutes as a dangerous high-grade fever?

A

over 104 degrees F

87
Q

What innate cell type is typically the first responder at the sight of infection?

A

neutrophils (most common and phagocytic)

88
Q

Adaptive Immunity

A
  • involves specific lymphocyte responses to an antigen
    – contact with antigen causes lymphocyte proliferation
    – immune response consists of lymphocytes and their products
    – longer response time than innate immunity
    — since it takes days to develop, adaptive immunity is considered the thrid line of body’s defense
  • Two branches of adaptive immunity
89
Q

What are the two branches of adaptive immunity?

A
  • Cell mediated immunity (involving T-lymphocytes)
  • Antibody- mediated immunity (involving B-lymphocytes, plasma cells, and antibodies)
90
Q

T- Lymphocyte

A

-one of the two branches of adaptive immunity
-effective against antigen within cells; requires antigen- presenting cells

91
Q

Cells formed following stimulation of T-lymphocytes

A

Cytotoxic t-lymphocyte and helper t-lymphocyte

92
Q

Effector Response of T-lymphocyte

A
  • Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte; destroys cells through apoptosis
  • Helper T-lymphocyte; releases molecules (e.g. interleukins) that regulate the immune system
93
Q

B-Lymphocyte

A

effective against antigen outside cells; does not require antigen- presenting cell

94
Q

Cells formed following stimulation of B-lymphocytes

A

plasma cells

95
Q

Effector Response of B-lymphocyte

A

produce antibodies

96
Q

Lymphocyte Classification

A

-contain a single, large nucleus, a small amount of cytoplasm, and a wide range of proteins expressed on their surface
-B lymphocytes: develop in bone marrow
-T lymphocytes: begin development in bone marrow but complete it in the thymus
– classified by surface proteins referred to as Cluster of Differentiation (CD) markers

97
Q

Cytotoxic T- lymphocytes

A

-CD8+ cells (circle shaped)
-release chemicals that destroy other cells

98
Q

Helper T- lymphocytes

A

-CD4+ cells (hook shaped)
-assist (“help”) in cell mediated, antibody-mediated, and innate immunity
– for ex. activate NK cells and macrophages

99
Q

Types of T Cells

A

-lymphocyte
-Cytotoxic T cells (Tc)
-Memory T cells (Tm)
-Regulatory T cells (Tr)
-Other T cell types

100
Q

Cytotoxic T cells (Tc)

A
  • designed to destroy virus-infected and tumor cells
  • releases perforin, granzymes and granulysin
  • expresses CD8 on its surface
101
Q

Memory T cells (Tm)

A

carry the memory of antigen exposure after the antigen has left the body

102
Q

Regulatory T cells (Tr)

A
  • maintain immunological tolerance
  • block T cell-mediated immune responses at the end of the response window
103
Q

Other T cell types

A

Natural killer T cells, helper T cells, etc

104
Q

Types of B cells

A
  • Memory B cells
  • Plasma B cells
105
Q

Memory B cells

A

-carry the memory of previous exposure to antigen
-generated after exposure to antigen by cytokine signaling

106
Q

Plasma B cells

A

-long-lived, non-proliferating antibody-secreting cells
-arise after exposure to antigen

107
Q

Features of Antigens

A
  • pathogens are detected by lymphocytes because they contain antigens
  • any molecule has the ability to act as an antigen, but some are more potent than others
    –proteins are the most potent, followed by sugars
108
Q

Antigen definition

A

anything that can bind to a t-lymphocyte it antibody

109
Q

Common Antigens

A
  • Components of bacteria
  • Viruses
  • Pollen
  • Animal Dander
  • Food
  • Drugs
110
Q

Foreign Antigens

A

-differ from human body’s molecules
- binds body’s immune components

111
Q

Self- Antigens

A

-body’s own molecules
-typically do not bind immune components
-the immune system is generally able to distinguish
- however, in autoimmune disorders, the system reacts to self-antigens as if foreign

112
Q

What does MHC stand for?

A

Major Histocompatibility Complex

113
Q

What is MHC good for?

A

-they are crucial proteins that help display antigens
- it is the critical means through which cells communicate about what is self versus non-self

114
Q

MHCI

A
  • expressed on the surface of all cells, except erythrocytes
  • docks with CD8 protein on the surface of Tc cells
    -display fragments of proteins
115
Q

If fragments are from _________ _______, immune system recognizes them as “self” and ignores them.

A

endogenous proteins

116
Q

If fragments are from an infectious agent, __________ __________ considers the antigen “nonself”.

A

immune system; it then communicates to cytotoxic t-cells that they should destroy the cell

117
Q

MHCII

A

-only expressed on macrophages, B cells, and dendritic cells
-docks with CD4 protein on the surface of Th cells
-antigens that have been phagocytized bind to MHC II proteins, flag helper T cells
-interaction leads to clonal growth of Th cells resulting in stimulating other immune system cells to respond to antigen

118
Q

Positive and Negative selection of Lymphocytes

A

the precursor to both B cells and T cells generate cell-surface receptors with up to 10^14 different versions of each receptor generated through DNA recombination

119
Q

Positive Selection

A

ensures lymphocytes are able to respond to antigen

120
Q

Negative Selection

A

removes lymphocytes that bind strongly to self-antigens

121
Q

Outcomes of Negative Selection of Lymphocytes

A

-Receptor Editing
- Anergy
-Apoptosis
-Ignorance

122
Q

Receptor Editing

A

change the lymphocyte receptor so it no longer recognizes self antigens (foreign)

123
Q

Anergy

A

change the lymphocyte so it is no longer capable of an immune response (neutralize)

124
Q

Apoptosis

A

clonal deletion and cell death

125
Q

Ignorance

A

continue maturation (autoimmune disease)

126
Q

_________ selection ensures lymphocytes are able to respond to antigen, and ________ selection removes those that respond to self-antigen.

A

Positive, Negative

127
Q

What does Ig stand for?

A

Immunoglobulin

128
Q

Antibodies (Immunoglobulin)

A

(Ig) proteins produced against a particular antigen
- antibodies “tag” pathogens for destruction by immune cells
- good defense against viruses, bacteria, toxins, yeast spores
– soluble antigens are combated by “humoral immunity”

129
Q

Structure of Ig

A
  • Y-shaped, soluble proteins
  • composed of four polypeptide chains
    – two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains
  • flexibility at hinge region of two heavy chains
  • two important functional areas, variable and constant regions
130
Q

Variable Regions

A
  • located at the ends of the antibody “arms”
    – contain antigen-binding site (most antibodies have two sites)
  • Bind antigens through weak intermolecular forces
    – hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and hydrophobic interactions
131
Q

Constant Regions

A
  • contains the Fc region (stalk), which determines biological function
  • same in structure for antibodies of a given class
  • 5 major classes; IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, IgE
132
Q

Functions of Antibodies in Adaptive Immunity

A
  • Antigen Neutralization
  • Antigen Agglutination
  • Antigen Precipitation
  • Complement Activation
  • Lymphocyte Recruitment and Activation
133
Q

Antigen Neutralization

A

covering and blocking the surface of the antigen

134
Q

Antigen Agglutination

A

clumping of antigens into larger complexes more readily recognized by macrophages

135
Q

Antigen Precipitation

A

bringing antigens out of solution, making them more easily recognized by macrophages

136
Q

Complement Activation

A

through Fc region; leading to cell lysis and attraction of other leukocytes

137
Q

Lymphocyte Recruitment and Activation

A

no further description

138
Q

IgG Class

A

-makes up 75-85% of antibodies in blood
-also predominant antibody in other fluids (ex. Lymph and CSF)
-can participate in all types of antibody actions
-can cross placenta and cause hemolytic disease in newborns (baby seen as foreign because of blood type)
- Y-shaped
- serum levels (mg/ml) 0.5 to 9
- half-life (days) 23 (secondary exposure response)

139
Q

IgM Class

A

-found mostly in blood
-most effective at agglutination and binding complement
-responsible for rejection of mismatched transfusions
- circular shaped
- serum levels (mg/ml) 1.5
-generates 1st exposure response

140
Q

IgA Class

A
  • found in areas exposed to environment
  • especially good at agglutination
  • produced in mucus, saliva, tears, and breastmilk
  • helps prevent pathogens adhering to and penetrating epithelium
  • linear shaped
141
Q

IgD Class

A
  • functions as antigen-specific B-lymphocyte receptor
  • identifies when immature B-lymphocytes ready for activation
  • Y-shaped
142
Q

IgE Class

A
  • usually formed in response to parasites and in allergic reactions
  • otherwise low rate of synthesis
  • causes release of products from basophils and mast cells
  • attracts eosinophils
  • Y-shaped
143
Q

Primary Versus Secondary Antibody Responses

A

-Primary phase begins with IgM
- Secondary phase begins with IgG
- differences are due to presence of memory B cells in secondary response
- antibodies are more rapidly produced in secondary response

144
Q

Which antibody stays the longest in the body?

A

IgG

145
Q

Causes of Autoimmune Diseases

A

unknown, but may include molecular mimicry, triggering of an immune response that bypasses Th cell involvement, or a deficiency in Tr cells

146
Q

Treatments of Autoimmune Diseases

A

immunosuppressive drugs, removal of thymus, plasmapheresis

147
Q
A

A&P I Lecture and Lab (12 decks)

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